Process and Content Theories of Motivation Essay

There are several process theories of motivation: The Vroom Expectancy Theory, the Adams’ Equity Theory, the Needs-Goal-Setting Theory, and the Reinforcement Theory of Motivation. Here our centre of attention is on helping you make a clear-cut distinction between process and content. Basically, process theories of motivation focus on how workers needs influence their own behaviour. Here our attention goes beyond motivation, our focal point is on giving you a key conceptual tool to help you manage both the performance of your direct reports (management) and the performance of your entire organization (leadership). â€Å"Process† is how employees work together, as opposed to the what – the â€Å"content,† the task, the issue – they are working on. An example of â€Å"process† is the way in which people interact with each other during a meeting; on the contrary, an example of â€Å"content† is the decision they make in that meeting. Process is hiring (the hiring processes that a company practices); content is the selected candidate that becomes the new employee. Process is the nature in which day-to-day performance conversations take place between the manager and her direct reports; content is what gets talked about, agreed upon, and actually understood. Process is the way in which people interact with each other in order to solve a problem; content is the actual solution to the problem. Most executives have the unconscious tendency to focus on content – which is great, that’s what they get paid for – but unfortunately most executives also have the unconscious tendency to forget about the process they are using. However, the quality of the â€Å"process† that is used (the type of meeting that is used to make a decision for example), has an impact on the quality of the resulting â€Å"content† (if the meeting is poorly designed, the quality of the resulting decision is likely to be poorer, but if the meeting is well designed, the quality of the resulting decision is likely to be better). Again, the better the process used, the better the resulting content, and vice versa: The poorer the process used, the poorer the resulting content. Do the people in your company hate meetings because they spend too much time in them? The problem is not in the meetings themselves, but in the way your company runs those meetings. Does your company have several low performers? The problem is not in those poor people who perform below standards, but in your company’s management practices. Is your company lagging behind its competition? The problem is not in those high performing organizations, but in the leadership skills of your company’s leaders. The process by which a company is led and managed determines its long-term success.heori of Motivation A great company is successful in the long run not because of its great products or services, but because of the nature of its leadership and management processes. You can have the greatest product or service, but if you don’t have the appropriate management and leadership processes, your company won’t get too far. It’s that simple. The next time something doesn’t go as you wanted it to go, stop for a second, step back, get your focus off the content, and take a closer look at the process you are using. How can you improve the process that you are using?

Pet Shop Boys and Beauty

Success & Jealousy in Beauty Beauty, written by Jane Martin in the mid nineteen hundreds, is an ironic play about two successful women, Bethany and Carla. Both women were the same age yet complete opposites. They also had completely different personalities and were unhappy with their lives. Martin casted and characterized them this way to illustrate a few themes. The drama was mainly centered on the theme that no one is ever happy unless they get their wishes granted. However, in these two women’s cases, getting what they wanted caused them to realize there is nothing wrong with being different.These two themes can be seen through the two character’s success, jealousy, and a genie. Bethany and Carla experienced success in Beauty. Carla was a famous, â€Å"beautiful catalogue model that was going to become a big time model soon after speaking with Ralph Lauren† (Martin 735). On the other hand, Bethany, the smart one, â€Å"received a $40,000 job offer straight ou t of college. She also published several short stories† (735). Carla was characterized as the perfect and beautiful success story, while Bethany was characterized as the ugly screw-up.However, neither person was happy in their respective positions. Carla was always annoyed, â€Å"and always hung by her fingernails in modeling. She felt like she had zero privacy, and guys would hassle her on the street and pressure her from the beginning of a relationship. She never was able to have a long relationship† (736). Likewise, Bethany did not see herself as a success story because, â€Å"she did not see herself as a beautiful individual† (736). They both envied each other’s success and looks. This alone shows the reader that the characters were very jealous of each other’s lives.Jealousy is very noticeable in Beauty, especially when it comes to Bethany. Bethany was extremely jealous of, â€Å"Carla because she looked beautiful. She represented that beautif ul person that knocks a man across a room twenty-four hours a day. Beautiful was in the major leagues, whereas pretty was in the minor leagues as a way for people to simply discover each other† (736). Bethany just considered a self a disgrace and a piece of trash. Carla explained, â€Å"Bethany is beautiful and she has the charm, personality, and is perfectly pretty† (736).Of course, Bethany places a stereotype on beautiful by saying, â€Å"it is the real deal. Carla gets discounts on makeup for no reason. Parents treat beautiful children better and they even statistically get paid more. Beautiful people can have sex any time, any place† (736). Carla, confused, did not understand why Bethany wanted to be just like her. Bethany hated Carla most of the time because of her beauty. This leads Carla to go on a rant about beauty and why it is so difficult to live and be beautiful simultaneously. Carla tells Bethany to be herself and she will have an amazing life.Bethan y begs to differ and says, â€Å"it is what everyone wants to be. Money can only make you buy things. Beauty makes you the center of the entire universe. All eyes are always on those individuals that are beautiful† (736). Carla says, â€Å"Bethany will hate her life is she was beautiful. She would be miserable and unhappy† (736). Bethany then pulls out a genie in a bottle. Bethany, determined, reiterates, â€Å"Carla’s thoughts do not matter. Carla was just lying about everything, which explains why she had no friends or a long relationship.Bethany wanted to be just like Carla, and she had a god dam genie and only one wish to make† (736). Bethany indeed used her one wish and wished that she was just like Carla. The genie is used as a symbol to symbolize the fact that Bethany got everything she wanted to be happy. The genie allowed Bethany to â€Å"walk in Carla’s shoes†. Bethany and Carla looked at each other and realized they had swapped ro les. Both women stated, â€Å"We have each other’s jewelry, legs, nail polish, clothes and shoes. We can see each other! † (737). Upset, Bethany stated, â€Å"She wanted to be beautiful, but she did not want to be Carla. (737). In the end, both women realized they regretted getting what they wanted because they both had the same thing that every other human had. They both realize that their happiness was not good because it only showed that they both just had a plethora of different problems. Beauty is practically a real life drama that actually occurs every day in the world. There are hundreds of thousands of people that are not happy with their current situations in life. Many of them just want to be so much more successful, and, in Bethany’s case, more beautiful.Too many people think that success and having good looks automatically lead to unlimited happiness. Sadly, this is a lot more false than true. People will only be happy if they are themselves and are different and unique. After reading Martin’s play, one can see that the two women are just like two people in the real world. They both have experienced success and jealousy. Too many people worry too much about their image and appearance. The genie in the play showed what happens sometimes when someone is given everything they ever dreamed of having.The genie granted Bethany’s wish so she could realize how it felt being in someone else’s place or position. Afterwards, she saw that being different was okay and actually better than she initially thought. She realized that she did not want to be anyone but herself. Overall, Beauty illustrates a real life event that teaches people a valuable lesson: One should be happy and unique because there is nothing wrong with being different. Martin, Jane. Beauty. Literature and the Writing Process. Ed. Elizabeth McMahan, Susan X. Day, Robert Funk, and Linda S. Coleman. Backpack ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2011. 7 33-737. Print.

Health care reform Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Health care reform - Essay Example It is not good for the declining American economy to spend more amounts at this juncture in the non-productive healthcare sector. â€Å"For the first ten years, the new bill will cost about $100 billion a year. This is about the yearly cost of the Iraq War. The bill might increase the cost of health insurance†(Pros and Cons of the Healthcare Reform Proposal(s), 2010). Moreover tax hikes as part of the new bill will destroy family budgets. â€Å"You will have to either buy health insurance if you don’t have it or have a 2% tax increase† (Pros and Cons of the Healthcare Reform Proposal(s), 2010). Tax increase will affect both rich and poor people. â€Å"There will be a doctor shortage because of the 40 million or so more people with health insurance. There may be a delay in getting medical treatment† (Pros and Cons of Health Insurance Reforms, 2009). The new reforms give more emphasize to the betterment of the patients and it says nothing about the betterment of healthcare professionals. In other words, the benefits enjoyed by the healthcare professionals as part of the old bill are ceased and therefore doctors are not taking their profession seriously now. The delay in getting essential medical services is a big threat to the lives of patients. "According to experts, more than 87 million American could lose access to their current health care plan under the new law† (Are the March 2010 federal health care reform laws good for America?, 2010). The current bill is intended not only to the uninsured people but also to the people who have already insurance coverage. In other words, all the existing insurance coverage may become void and all Americans should seek new coverage irrespective of whether presently they have insurance coverage or not. â€Å"Rep. John Shadegg (R) of Arizona holds a news conference on Jan. 13 on Capitol Hill to make the case that there are hidden costs in the new health care bill† (Trumbull, 2010). In other words, the new bill is

My leader Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

My leader - Assignment Example It turned out that the reporting sessions or the reports were deleted from the accounts by the supervisor by mistake. It had a record of more than one month of reporting of the security checks. It was a great loss of information. On the date of the audit, the supervisor came himself to check on the reports since there was no information delivered. Firstly, it was astonishing that the regional head would visit the workplace to inquire about reporting. As soon as he was informed about the mishap of loss of information, he took a proactive approach rather than becoming angry. He took control of the situation and rather asked the sub-parameter or computers from where the reports were being sent. Instead of becoming overly concerned about the mishap, the regional head took notice of the situation and found out alternative ways. He could have simply misreported the progress of the supervisor for his personal interest but he rather becomes a team leader than just being the

Cubism and 3D Sculptures Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cubism and 3D Sculptures - Personal Statement Example The beginning is 20th century saw the emergence of cubism, a painting style that balances the geometry and reality of objects as seen in various dimensions. Cubism led to the abandonment of single viewpoint of objects for a more geometric and realistic 3D view of objects drawn on a 2D plane, where artists pursued beauty and attraction. Artists like Frank Lloyd, Giger, Robin, and Boccioni among many other creative brains curved sculptures to pass a statement of the value of cubism on the world of arts (Jaskiewicz, pars. 2-3). Drawing from the influences of these artists’ works on the modern day 3D environment, I have to admit that their sculptures have played critical roles in the production of 3D objects in videos and computer graphics. Its common knowledge that, in the present day, there are machines and computer programs that can create various 3D videos, largely by replicating actual physical objects carved out of wood, soapstones, clay, metal, and plastics. In my attempt to understand the link between cubism and 3D, I inverted pyramid of several boxes laid above each other. However, I realized that there was no balance in the dynamism of the boxes. Hence, I turned them over and drew the box down into two 4-point stars, each on top of the other. From this, I could visualize a wrought iron glass structure erected on a tall platform. From this dimension, cubism-inspired my imagination of a 3D sculpture.

English - World Literature Oedipus Rex, Sophocles Essay

English - World Literature Oedipus Rex, Sophocles - Essay Example In the case of Oedipus Rex it will be that of â€Å"pity† and â€Å"fear†, the classic components of tragedy as explicated in Aristotle’s Poetics. The task for the modern actor is to take an ancient story dealing with a society that has long since vanished and to make his character real to the audience. The tragedy of a man who unknowingly kills his own father, marries his mother and his children with her creates the kind of nightmarish situation that any audience member should be able to relate to. The task of the actor, and of the director who guides him, is to portray this tragic situation in a manner that makes it real to a modern audience. It is this type of guidance that will be explored in the imaginary letter immediately following. First of all John I would like to thank you for agreeing to take on one of the greatest, and also most challenging roles in all of drama. I am sure that the two of us, together with the rest of the cast and crew, will be able to bring this timeless story to our contemporary audience in a new and exciting manner. One of the challenges of this play, and of your role as Oedipus in particular, is that everyone knows the story in the audience. The audience all know that Oedipus has killed his father, not knowing what he has done, and everyone knows that he has subsequently married his own mother and had children with her. There is nothing â€Å"new† within this story. Our task will be to make the story new and as shocking as if the audience were seeing it for the first time without knowing what is about to occur. As an experienced actor you know that this â€Å"making new† is one of the central tasks in all of drama, especially in a play with as well-known a story as this one. I would like to take you few a few points in the play in which the â€Å"newness† of the situation is vital. The first point is at the very beginning of the play when you, as a young king, are faced with a dying city

Multiculturalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Multiculturalism - Essay Example To have a multicultural state, the nation must be a multi-ethnic; the cultures should be open, self-critical, and interactive in their relations with other each other (Interviews by Cindi John, 2004). It means welcomming, living, sharing and caring for and with culturally diverse people. This diversity comes from people who migrate from their respective nations in search for better conditions than those available back home. Most often the reason cited for this immigration is for a look out of a prospective job, however reasons such as looking for a safe and secure environment can also be seen. The immigration of muslim communities to muslim nations is one such example. The roots of Multiculturalism in the US can be found in the Civil Rights Movement of 1960s when the minorites (Blacks) fought for their rights (UWM, 2002). Thus it can be said that even though the immigrants do not hold citizenship of the country they live in, yet they have their rights which the a multiculturistic country must give in order to prevent discord and conflicts. Multiculturalism is thought to be connected to a solution in solving the problem of racism and discrimination in the society. According to the literature, when culturally diverse people live together, they form a bond; a sort of a relationship between themselves. After the initial conflicts and misunderstandings are over, they start to learn from each other and appreciate each other's diversity. Different cultures are understood, language is simplified, feeling of humanity is restored and as a result diversity is accepted and racism extinguished. 2. Diversity Breeds Creativity, Skills & Knowledge People from different backgrounds and cultures have different skills, talents and knowledge. This is what makes them so different. This diversity is good for any organization which employes culturally diverse people. People bring in different knowledge and skills which is essential for any growing organization. New ideas are bred, skills are exchnaged and learnt, and as a result creativity is enhanced. A study done by Sweeney, Weaven, & Herington (2008), showed the positive effect on quality of work done by diverse people working in groups. This goes on to show that countries promote multiculuralism since it is good for their country and its people. A third world nations, like Pakistan or India, can find it increasingly beneficial when foreigneres bring foreign direct investment, new technoloy and know-how, as well as any information or skills previouly not available in the country. 3. Exposure For any country, the exposure of its resources is beneficial for the economic situation. Through multiculturalism, people belonging to other countries can come and help enhance, grow and improve the existing industry. Once a country gets known for its industry, talent, skills or resources, it creates demand for more and hence get the wheel of the country moving. This is the case with Dubai, where many different cultures live and continue to come in because of the attractiveness of the Emirate. Cons of Multiculturalism Where there are countries that promote multiculturalism due to its advantages,

System Analysis and Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

System Analysis and Design - Essay Example Another major recognition I have had related to system analysis and design is the relation of systematic inputs and their workplace functionality. Indeed, Alter (2006, p. 1) indicated that one of the primary challenges of system analysis and design is ineffective design of inputs within the system. Dick & Carey (2009) indicated that the single most important factor of whether a systematic training input will be incorporated into the workplace environment is the context of that workplace. Many times in my past experience I have received training in an element that was later not directly relevant or supported in the workplace environment. Upon entering the workplace environment this systematic component was then disregarded because of ineffective structures. Ultimately, then I recognize that one of the most essential elements of systems and systematic design is ensuring that each of the components operate together in a functional and mechanistic way. While there are not customers in the traditional sense, there are similar components. In this way there are students achieving and receiving the learning. There are parents interested in their children’s education. There are administrators and state education board members interested in ensuring the education provided reflects well on their professional competency. Finally, there are business organizations concerned with ensuring that there is an educated workforce to choose from. The products and service are course specific. In terms of a mathematics classroom it is important that students learn algebraic functions, geometry, and potentially calculus. Additionally, they gain critical thinking and problem solving abilities. In this way the products and services are the education that is provided for the students. This information is a value entity as it can potentially be exchanged by the student for career advancement or

Anticoagulation Therapy for Stroke Prevention Case Study

Anticoagulation Therapy for Stroke Prevention - Case Study Example Most anticoagulants are associated with adverse drug reactions, concerns for their duration of action, bleeding risk, and the need to carry out monitoring while adjusting dosages during the treatment period. Therefore, selection of appropriate anticoagulant for preventing Atrial Fibrillation must ensure that the practitioner considers these factors. From a therapeutic perspective, reports show that Warfarin is the first line anticoagulant for patients with Atrial Fibrillation (Nice guideline 2012), especially when the condition is primary or severe because it curbs the development of stroke. Besides, reports show that oral administration has had long-term safety for the past 50 years (AABB, 2014). In addition to that, its effect can be reversed with vitamin k antidote in case of bleeding (AABB, 2014). Moreover, warfarin has reduced rates of major gastrointestinal bleeding and myocardial infarction comparing with the novel oral anticoagulants (NHS Information Centre, 2014). Despite it s complete absorption after oral administration, Warfarin is slow acting anticoagulant with a long half-life. Its two active enantiomers (R and S forms) have different therapeutic potency, metabolism, and clearance pathways (Hirsh, 2003). Besides, it has a delayed anticoagulant effect from two to 3 days while its duration of action continues for 2 to 5 days after a single dose administration. However, dosing of Warfarin can be described as complicated; this is due to its interaction with some foods containing vitamin K.

To what extent do you see the women Essay Example for Free

To what extent do you see the women Essay To what extent do you see the women in the play as victims in a mans world? How might the response of a modern audience to Gertrude and Ophellia differ from that of Shakespeares time? Hamlet is a story of revenge, betrayal and confused love, set in the Elizabethan period. Shakespeare often interpreted everyday life into his plays; therefore each one would reflect the society of that time. For many years in the past, women played a small role socially, economically and politically. As a result of this, many works of literature were reflective of this diminutive role of women. They were not thought of as equal to men. They had hardly any rights and were expected to obey men1. The women were simply seen to bear children and also to take care of them. They had no political voice and were very rarely educated. They were often regarded as a possession, the men in the family always firmly in control of their future. However, in contrast to this trend, in Hamlet the women in the play are driving factors for the actions of many other characters. Although it was very much a society dominated by man, womens influence was obvious in many aspects of life. Both Gertrude and Ophelia affected many of the decisions and actions done by Hamlet throughout the play. Hamlet is based in Elsinore. Elsinore, also, does not seem to be a place where women matter very much. The political voice in this world are all men, and where necessary they are prepared to use women, even their own family, in the power political game. The play is mainly based around the thoughts and actions of these men and as there are only two female characters in the play, this could represent how men dont value women and their say through this time period. Gertrude influenced Hamlet significantly throughout the play. Hamlet was very angered by his mothers remarriage to Claudius. It could be suggested that in order to marry Gertrude, Claudius kills his brother, Old Hamlet. Hamlet strives to seek revenge against Claudius for the death of his father. Therefore, Gertrude is the driving factor for the whole set-up of the play. There is no suggestion to say that Gertrude knew about the murder of her late husband yet her hasty marriage to Claudius could reveal how she cant survive alone, as a woman, in a world ruled by males2. She seems to be seeking dominance from another man, and Claudius was the perfect solution for her. Gertrudes speedy marriage makes Hamlet feel that she and all women are untrustworthy: Hamlet-Let me not think ont- Frailty, thy name is woman- (Act 1 Scene 2 Line 148) Here, Hamlet makes the generalisation that all women are weak. He displays very little respect for women in general, never-mind his own mother. Hamlet victimises his mother here as his feelings of anger are thrown directly upon her, the weaker of the species. Hamlet maintains a formal politeness towards his mother as the play progresses, but his asides are bitter and deeply critical: For look how cheerfully my mother looks and my father died withins two hours (Act 3 Scene 2 Line 130) It appears that Gertrude is a frequent victim of Hamlet throughout the play. Not once did Hamlet actually consider his mothers feelings or ask about them. His disgust for female sexuality caused him to lash out at her verbally and sometimes even physically. He didnt realise that Gertrude was trying to be supportive of him as well as her husband, whom conventions said she must also adore. Instead of listening to her opinions, Hamlet used the Queen in order to make himself feel better and also as a means of releasing his anger. It could be implied that Hamlets depiction of his mothers behaviour could simply be necessary to trap Claudius but from Act 3 Scene 2 Line 135, Hamlet also seems to be trying to shame his mother publicly into feeling guilty for her behaviour in remarrying. He says sarcastically: O heavens, die two months ago and not forgotten yet! Clearly, Hamlet has little respect for his mother and although he dismisses her regularly, Gertrude still seems to endure him and do the best she can for him. This reveals how Gertrude, as a woman, is slightly passive. At the start of Act 3 Scene 4, Gertrude starts by trying to maintain her dignity. Eventually, she seems to realise her position as a woman and is soon derailed by Hamlets accusations and quicker tongue. There is something pathetic in the way she moves from the attempt to be regal in: Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. (Act 3 Scene 4 Line 10) to the simple, desperate and childlike: What shall I do? (Act 3 Scene 4 Line 199) at the end of the scene. Here, she is a victim in the way that she is trapped within her own mind and cannot dominate a mans view. Her opinions matter very little and she soon finds herself being led into Hamlets scheme against the King. Claudius, on the other hand, does seem to have some respect towards Gertrude. Her husband asks of her opinion and she is not afraid to say what she thinks when he asks her. He refers to her as Sweet Gertrude consistently, displaying a great love of her. However, perhaps Claudius sees Gertrude as a trophy for his successes, his win of the kingdom. He may also see her as a possession, as many men of that time did. True, he does treat her respectfully but, again, she is fairly passive in her response to him: I shall obey you. (Act 3 Scene 1 Line 42) reflecting how her actions revolve around a mans view. What the Queen doesnt realise is that she is a victim within the Kings attempt at plotting against her beloved son. In Act 4 Scene 7, there is a clear sense of how Claudius is putting his own survival before his bond with Gertrude. Gertrude is in the middle of an on going conflict between her son and her new husband. She genuinely loves Hamlet and Claudius, but the two men in her life are on a downward spiral and so is she. What she seems to want is something very basic: a happy family. But life as a woman in a mans pride driven world is denying her that. She is a victim in the way that Hamlet continues to harm her emotionally and in the sense that Claudius uses her as a mark of pride. Also, indirectly, she is a victim of the play as a whole. She drinks the poison, which the king set up for Hamlet and sadly dies. Claudius does not prevent her from doing so in order to disguise his guilt. Gertrude is a victim of the tragedy of the play and is eventually over powered by the manly pride driven battle. As said previously, men are prepared to use women, even their own family, in the power political game. The chief example of this is Ophelia. She spends much of the play bewildered about what is happening around her, as she tries to follow what her father, brother and Hamlet tell her to do. Immediately we see how Ophelia is a victim in the manly-dominated world of Elsinore. In Act 1 Scene 3, Laertes seems to be controlling her life for her. She takes his advice constantly and seems very dependent of him. The image in the words: Tis in my memory lockd, And you yourself shall keep the key of it. (Act 1 Scene 3 Line 90-91) gives us the impression that she allows him to control even her thoughts. Ophelia has no privacy in her life and seems to obey her father almost like a dog to its owner. Her passivity is reflected in her total acceptance of male authority: I shall obey, my lord. (Act 1 Scene 3 Line 141) The fact that Ophelia refers to her father as my lord implies that she may feel inferior to him. Possibly because he is her father or even simply because he is a male and regarded upon as the stronger species. Claudius treats Ophelia as a mere tool when he sets her up so that he and Polonius can spy on Hamlet. Polonius also neglects her feelings in this matter and bluntly commands her: Ophelia, walk you here Read on this book (Act 3 Scene 1 Line 49) She even appears a victim of her own father. Ophelia is clearly upset at this point in the play although Polonius and the King ignore this. However, she appears to be more upset for Hamlet rather than herself. This could be because she is so used to suppressing her needs that she doesnt even recognise them anymore.

Pathogenic Etiology of Atherosclerosis

Pathogenic Etiology of Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis Heart Coronary Special Topics in Pathophysiology Introduction to the Components of the Cardiovascular System: To understand the basis of this paper, the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis, it is vital to appreciate the basic physiology of the heart, circulatory system, and most importantly, the coronary arteries. This fundamental comprehension will lay the foundation to better understand the devastation caused to the coronary arteries by the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. This may also provide insight into prevention and treatment strategies to counteract the destructive mechanism of this disease. The heart is a very small, vitally important organ composed of four muscular chambers: the right and left atria, and the right and left ventricles. The atria have relatively thin muscular walls, allowing them to be highly distensible [1]; whereas the ventricles are of greater muscular thickness, which is vital for pumping the blood to the pulmonary and systemic circuits. A normal healthy heart has two main functions: to pump blood to the pulmonary circuit where the blood becomes oxygenated and to pump the oxygen-rich blood to the systemic circuit. The heart is essentially a small, muscular pump that is responsible for propelling deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while correspondingly pumping nutrient rich, oxygenated blood to the body. Once the blood leaves the left ventricle, it enters the aorta and corresponding network of arteries that constitute the circulatory system. Blood vessels are divided into four categories: arteries (take oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body), arterioles (branch out from the arteries leading into the capillaries), capillaries (smallest of blood vessels where gas and nutrient exchange occurs), and veins (carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart). Arteries and veins have different functions; however, they both are composed of three distinct layers: tunica intima, tunica media, and the tunica adventita [2]. The tunica intima is the innermost layer of any given blood vessel; it includes the endothelial lining and a layer of connective tissue containing variable amounts of elastic fibers [3]. The tunica media is the middle layer which contains concentric sheets of smooth muscle composed of elastin and collagen fibers [3]. It is this smooth muscle that when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system either constricts, decreasing the diameter of the lumen (vasoconstriction), or it relaxes, increasing the diameter of the vessel lumen (vasodilation) [2]; the role of these vasoactivators will be discussed later in this paper. Lastly, the tunica adventitia is the outer most layer, which is composed of collagen and elastin fibers. Often, this outer layer is blended into adjacent tissues allowing the anchoring and stabilization of some vessels [2]. As the heart is an organ continuously doing work, the cardiac muscle cells are in need of a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients. It is the coronary circulation that is responsible for the blood supply to the cardiac tissues, via an extensive network of coronary arteries. Both the left and right coronary arteries originate from the base of the ascending aorta within the aortic sinus [1,3]. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays an important role as neurogenic stimuli have the ability to restrain the extent of coronary vasodilation. This neuromodulation governs the rate of release of vasoconstrictive norepinephrine (NE), which is increased by the adrenergic activation and angiotension II (AII) [1]. Other vasoconstrictors include ÃŽ ±1 and ÃŽ ±2 adrenergic activity, AII, and endothelin. Vasoconstrictive stimuli are also responsible for an increase in free cytosolic calcium in the vascular smooth muscle, resulting in the homeostasis of myocardial contraction [4]. Importantly, these vasoconstrictive adrenergic influences are opposed by vasodilatory influences such as ÃŽ ²-adrenergic vascular receptors and metabolic mechanisms such as nitric oxide (NO), adenosine (ATP) and the activation of vascular ATP dependent potassium channels (KATP) [1]. With this, there are three essential regulators of coronary tone: i) the metabolic vasodilatory system; ii) the neurogenic control system (more vasoconstrictive than vasodilatory); and iii) the vascular epithelium, which can be either vasodilatory by releasing NO or vasoconstrictive by releasing endothelin-1 [1, 4]. Thus, we must keep in mind that endothelin-1 is one of the more powerful vasoconstrictors, especially when endothelial damage is extensive [1, 4]. These vasoactive substances are activated by their respective and very different, signaling pathways; thus contributing to the complexities of atherosclerosis, making it a true multifactorial disease. As with other vessels within the body, when there is an increased demand for oxygen, vasodilation of the coronary arteries occurs. This vasodilation is usually mediated by the release of NO from healthy endothelium; in contrast, when the endothelium is damaged, it releases vasoconstrictive endothelin [1]. It is because of their vital importance that the coronary arteries have gained popular attention when they are partially or completely occluded by atherosclerotic plaques. These atherosclerotic plaques cause inadequate oxygen supply to the cardiac tissue resulting in tissue death (myocardial infarction), and various other forms of heart diseases [1]. Therefore without an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the myocardial muscle, the heart will cease to function properly. This basic foundation will give us a better idea on how a healthy cardiovascular system functions. Therefore allowing us to understand the drastic effects a disease such as atherosclerosis can have on this system. The main focus of this paper will be on atherosclerosis; however other forms of heart disease will be discussed to solidify the idea of how destructive atherosclerosis can be. Thus, the remainder of this paper will focus on the cellular mechanisms behind atherosclerosis, along with old and new thoughts in regards to the etiology and treatment options for this type of heart disease. Their Underlying Relation of Atherosclerosis to Other Coronary Heart Diseases: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) has emerged as the dominant chronic disease in many parts of the world, and early in the 21st century it is predicted to become the main cause of disability and death worldwide [5]. CVD represents a very broad category of conditions that affect the heart and circulatory system. Common risk factors include: blood pressure (hypertension), total cholesterol (LDL and HDL), diabetes, obesity, left ventricular hypertrophy, and genetic predisposition [6]. The most prominent and worrisome of these diseases are those that contribute to coronary heart disease. The coronary heart diseases of interest include: ischemic heart disease, angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, and most importantly, atherosclerosis. As a result of these coronary heart diseases, cardiac output is often depressed and often increases the oxygen demand needed by the cardiac tissues. Therefore the effects of coronary heart disease cannot be taken lightly, as the effects can be highly variable, ranging from diffuse damage, to localized narrowing or stenosis of the coronary arteries [7]. Importantly, these coronary diseases have direct vasodilatory effects of the coronary circulation, acting by the formation of adenosine and NO, and the opening of the KATP channels; also the vascular endothelium is damaged, causing the vasodilatory stimuli to be overcome by the vasoconstrictors such as endothelin and AII [1]. By discussing these other forms of coronary heart disease, the reader will better understand the relationship between these diseases and atherosclerosis; allowing a better understanding of the importance for prevention and treatment strategies of coronary heart disease. Traditionally, it has been thought that the major cause of myocardial ischemia is the result of fixed vessel narrowing and abnormal vascular tone, caused by atherosclerosis-induced endothelial cell dysfunction [6]. This narrowing of the coronary arteries reduces the blood and oxygen flow to the myocardial tissues. It is the cessation of the myocardial blood flow due to atherosclerotic occlusions that results in the immediate physiological and metabolic changes. Unfortunately, the heart cannot increase oxygen extraction on demand, therefore any additional oxygen requirements are met by increasing the blood flow and autoregulation of the coronary vasculature [6]. This oxygen imbalance may also be an underlying cause for not only myocardial ischemia, but contractile cardiac dysfunction, arrhythmias, infarction, and sometimes death [5]. However, important to note is the heart’s unique ability to adapt to these sudden changes in coronary blood flow by correspondingly decreasing the rate of cardiac contraction [1,5]. Thus, the decreased work during ischemia proportionately decreases the oxygen demand and helps conserve the underperfused myocardium [1]; this protective mechanism prevents further damage and cell death due to decreased oxygen levels. Besides physiological factors, there are also metabolic changes that occur immediately after the initial onset of ischemia. The myocardial energy metabolism shifts from aerobic (mitochondrial) metabolism to anaerobic glycolysis within a few seconds [5]; simultaneously, the energy depletion causes the myocardial contraction to diminish, eventually ceasing altogether. Consequently, due to the inhibited mitochondrial metabolism, there is an increase in adenosine concentrations; which causes the adenosine to bind to the smooth muscle receptors, decreasing calcium entry into the cells, thus causing relaxation due to vasodilation [7,8]. Overall, the inability to meet the myocardial oxygen demand often results in severe, vice-like chest pain, or more commonly known as angina pectoris. Angina pectoris often is an associated symptom of myocardial ischemia and is the common medical term used to describe chest pain or discomfort due to coronary heart disease without myocardial necrosis. Interestingly, angina can also occur in people with valvular disease, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and uncontrolled high blood pressure (hypertension). Currently there are three major variations of angina pectoris. The first is known as stable angina, or more commonly, chronic stable angina. This form of angina is characterized by a fixed, obstructive atheromous plaque in one or more coronary arteries [1,7,9]. Patients who suffer from chronic stable angina usually have episodes of discomfort that are usually predictable. The discomfort is experienced shortly after over exertion and/or mental or emotional stress; these symptoms are usually relieved by rest, nitroglycerin, or a combination of both. Again, the major contributing factor in stable angina is due to the coronary vasoconstrict ion caused by atherosclerotic endothelial dysfunction [7]. A second form of angina is known as unstable angina. Unstable angina is characterized by unexpected chest pain which usually occurs at rest without any type of physical exertion. This chest pain is due to coronary artery stenosis caused by atherosclerotic plaque or the narrowing of the vessels obstructed by blood clots. Also other key factors in unstable angina include inflammation and infection [7,9]. The last form of angina is the variant angina, or more commonly known as Prinzmetal’s Angina [7]. This form of angina is manifested by episodes of focal coronary artery spasm in the absence of atherosclerotic lesions [7,9]. The coronary vasospasm alone reduces coronary oxygen supply and is thought to be caused in response to abnormal endothelial dependent vasodilators (Acetylcholine – ACh, and serotonin) [1,7]. These coronary spasms are often manifested by the coronary atheroma which damages the vascular endothelium, causing a decreased production of vasodilators (NO and prostaglandin – PGI2) and an increase in vasoconstrictive factors such as endothelin and AII [1]. Often when someone is diagnosed with either form of angina, they are usually monitored closely, as they are at an increased risk of a heart attack (myocardial infarction), cardiac arrest, or sudden cardiac death. A myocardial infarction (heart attack) is the resultant complication when the blood supply to part of the heart is interrupted. This ischemic oxygen shortage causes damage and sometimes death to the heart tissues. Important associated risk factors include: atherosclerosis, previous heart attack or stroke, smoking, high LDL and low HDL cholesterol levels, diabetes, obesity, and high blood pressure [10]. Often referred to as an acute myocardial infarction, it is part of the acute coronary syndromes which includes ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) and unstable angina [1,7,10]. As with angina, the pain experienced may result from the release of mediators such as adenosine and lactate from the ischemic myocardial cells onto the local nerve endings [7]. This ischemic persistence triggers a process called the ischemic cascade [5], which usually results in tissue death due to necrosis. Certain factors such as psychological stressors and physical exertion have been identified as major triggering factors involved with acute myocardial infarctions. Often these acute myocardial infarctions are brought on by the rupturing of atherosclerotic plaques, which then promote thrombus (blood clot) formation causing further occlusion of the arteries. This atherosclerotic blockage thus initiates myocardial necrosis, which in turn activates systemic responses to inflammation causing the release of cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFÃŽ ±) [7,10]. Damaged caused by myocardial necrosis includes: i) loss of critical amount of ATP, ii) membrane damag e induced metabolically or mechanically, iii) formation of free radicals, iv) calcium overload, and v) sodium pump inhibition [1]. Apart from damaging the myocardial tissue, an acute myocardial infarction can cause varying pathophysiological changes in other organ systems. Some of these changes include: decreased pulmonary function – gas exchange, ventilation, and distribution of perfusion, decreased vital capacity; reduction in hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen, causes hyperglycemia and impaired glucose function, increases the plasma and urinary catecholamine levels (thus enhancing platelet aggregation), and also has been found to increase blood viscosity [5]. From the above evidence, we can see that coronary heart disease should not be looked at light heartedly. It is due to their similarity that the different coronary heart diseases can be diagnosed using a given set of molecular markers and other diagnostic tools. Serum cardiac markers have become widely used when it comes to diagnosing the extent and type of coronary heart disease a patient is symptomatic of. Also, these tests have allowed physicians to diagnose an additional one third of patients that do not exhibit all criteria of a given disease [5], thus preventing more premature deaths. The most common of these cardiac markers are myocardial bound creatine kinase (CK-MB), and cardiac troponin l and t (cTnl and cTnT). These markers are often found within a blood sample as levels start to rise between 3-8 hours and 3-4 hours respectively [7]. More recently, new ‘risk factor’ biomarkers such as C-reactive protein (CRP), myeloperoxidase (MPO) [11, 12], and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 [12] are being studied more in depth as alternative cardiac markers. Although cardiac biomarkers are heavily used, the role of noninvasive technologies also plays a major role in diagnosing coronary heart disease. These noninvasive metho ds include electrocardiography, exercise stress testing, echocardiography, cardiovascular MRI, and CT imaging of the heart [5]. Some invasive, intravascular techniques include ultrasound, thermography, near infrared spectroscopy, cardiac catheterization, and cardiac angiography [12]. As coronary heart disease is the leading cause of hospitalization and death among today’s population, primary and secondary prevention strategies need to be considered with the utmost importance. Primary prevention generally means the effort set forth to modify risk factors and prevent their development delaying or preventing new onset coronary heart disease [13]. As for secondary prevention, this often refers to the therapy involved to reduce recurrent coronary heart disease events; thus secondary preventions are essentially treatment strategies. The most common and less intensive of these treatment strategies are that of the pharmaceutical therapies. Often, these drug regimes range from the daily aspirin intake to angiotension-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi), to ÃŽ ²-blockers and nitrates [12]. These drug therapies often lower the risk of recurrent cardiovascular events. Unfortunately daily drug regimes do not work for everyone. Some people have their coronary heart dise ase surgically corrected either by angioplasty (insertion of stent to keep the blocked vessel open) or by means of a more complex surgery consisting of a single to multiple coronary artery bypass. With everything considered, drug therapies and surgical correction are only a means of correcting the problem; patients are also encouraged to increase physical activity and change their daily dietary habits in becoming more successful in reducing risk of development or progression of coronary artery disease. These different forms of coronary heart disease are very closely related to one another, more importantly, closely related to atherosclerosis. As discussed previously, coronary heart diseases are characterized by the narrowing or stenosis of the coronary vessels, usually caused by the atherosclerotic plaque formation due to endothelial cell dysfunction. As a result, atherosclerosis is the underlying mechanism for ischemic heart disease, angina pectoris (stable, unstable, and variant), myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death [12]. Therefore it is important to understand the cellular pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, which will lead to a better understanding resulting in better prevention and treatment strategies for all forms of atheroma induced coronary heart disease. Introduction to Atherosclerosis: Atherosclerosis, the primary etiology of cardiovascular disease, is characterized by intimal plaque that forms as a time-dependent response to arterial injury [14]. Atherosclerosis is a disease affecting the arterial blood vessels, which is commonly known as â€Å"hardening of the arteries.† This form of coronary heart disease is the principle source of both cerebral and myocardial infarction, gangrene of the extremities, and loss of function of both organs and tissues [15]; this disease is ultimately responsible for a majority of deaths in North America, Europe, and Japan [16]. The method of atherogenesis is not fully understood, however there are a number of current models that suggest that stressors corrupt the vascular integrity allowing the abnormal accumulation of lipids, cells and extracellular matrix within the arterial wall [7]. Due to its very slow progression, it is not surprising that atherosclerosis goes undetected and remains asymptomatic until the atheroma obstr ucts the blood flow within the artery [14,16]; hence atherosclerosis is often referred to as the â€Å"silent killer†. Often, the atherosclerotic plaque can be divided into three distinct components. The first being the atheroma, which is the nodular accumulation of the soft, flaky, and yellow material of the plaques, usually composed of macrophages closest to the lumen of the artery. The second component is the underlying areas of cholesterol crystals, and the third is the calcification at the outer base of the older/more advanced lesions [17]. Collectively, these components constitute the basis of the atherosclerotic plaques. These atherosclerotic plaques are responsible for the arterial narrowing (stenosis) or they may rupture and provoke thrombosis [7, 14, 15]; either way the atherosclerotic plaque causes an insufficient blood supply to the heart and other organs. As discussed previously, the atherosclerotic plaques lead to other major complications such as ischemia, angina pectoris, myocardial infarction, stroke, and causes impaired blood flow to the kidneys and lower extremities. Interestingly, arteries without many branches (internal mammary or radial arteries) tend not to develop atherosclerosis [5]. One of the most evidence-based hypotheses regarding atherogenesis is that of the response-to-injury hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that the atherosclerotic lesions represent a specialized form of a protective, inflammatory, fibroproliferative response to various forms of insult to the arterial wall [15]. This seems to be a reoccurring theme, as now atherosclerosis is considered to be a form of chronic inflammation between modified lipoproteins, monocyte derived macrophages, T cells, and normal cellular elements of the arterial wall [16, 18]. As with other diseases, there are a number of physiological factors that increases one’s risk for developing atherosclerosis. These factors include: age, sex, diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance, hypertension, tobacco smoking, estrogen status, physical inactivity, metabolic syndrome, and dyslipidemia [7, 19]. The remainder of this paper will shift its focus to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis including the ideas of endothelial dysfunction, lipoprotein entry and modification, recruitment of leukocytes, recruitment of smooth muscle; as well as other contributing factors such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, and diabetes. Also, the cellular complications of atherosclerosis will be discussed. Endothelial Dysfunction – Primary Initiation of Atherosclerosis: Healthy arteries are often responsive to various stimuli, including the shear stress of blood flow and various neurogenic signals. These endothelial cells secrete substances that modulate contraction and dilation of the smooth muscle cells of the underlying medial layer [7]. These healthy endothelial cells are also responsible for the inhibition of migration of smooth muscle cells to the intimal layer [20] and they also play an important role in immune responses. Normal functional characteristics of healthy endothelium includes: i) ability to act as a permeable barrier between the intravascular and tissue space, ii) ability to modify and transport lipoproteins into the vessel wall, iii) acts as a non-thrombogenic and non-leukocyte adherent surface, iv) acting as a source of vasoactive molecules, v) act as a source of growth regulatory molecules, and vi) a source of connective tissue matrix molecules [14, 15]. Overall, in a normal, healthy state, the endothelial layer provides a prote ctive, non-thrombogenic surface with homeostatic vasodilatory and anti-inflammatory properties [7]. It is widely known that the endothelium is responsible for the synthesis and release of several vasodilators such as: NO, endothelium derived hyperpolarizing factors (EDHFs), endothelial derived relaxing factors (EDRFs), and prostacyclin (PGI2) [7, 20]. These vasodilators utilize a G-coupled signaling pathway, where NO diffuses from the endothelium to the vascular smooth muscle where it activates guanylyl cyclase (G-cyclase) [7]. The G-cyclase in turn forms cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) from cGTP; an increase in cGMP results in smooth muscle relaxation which subsequently involves a reduction of cytosolic Ca2+. Aside from these anti-thrombic substances, the endothelium also produces prothrombic molecules including endothelin-1 and other endothelium derived contracting factors (EDFCs) [20]. Importantly, the endothelium derived NO not only modulates the tone of the underlying vascular smooth muscle, but is also responsible for the inhibition of several proatherogenic processes. These processes include smooth muscle proliferation and recruitment, platelet aggregation, oxidation of low density lipoproteins (LDLs), monocyte and leukocyte recruitment, platelet adhesion, and the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines [20]. Therefore, relating back to the response-to-injury hypothesis, loss of these endothelial functions promotes endothelial dysfunction, thus acting as the primary event in atherogenesis. Endothelial dysfunction is considered to be an initiating event which leads to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. For this reason endothelial dysfunction has been shown to be of prognostic significance in predicting such vascular events as heart attacks or strokes [21]. It has been established that endothelial cell dysfunction is characterized by alterations in vascular permeability and inadequate production of NO [4, 22, 23]; thus predisposing the endothelium to the development of atheromas. Interestingly, in response to initial atheroma formation, the arteries often dilate, causing outward remodeling of the vessel for this accommodation [4]; however if this remodeling is insufficient, the blood flow is impaired, thus causing ischemia [4]. Several physical and chemical factors are responsible for affecting normal endothelial function. Some common factors discussed previously include diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, smoking, age, diet, and physical inactivity. However, more importantly are the physiological factors: i) impairment of the permeable barrier, ii) release of inflammatory cytokines, iii) increase transcription of cell-surface adhesion molecules, iv) altered release of vasoactive substances (PGI2 and NO), and v) interference with normal anti-thrombotic properties [7]. Commonly, endothelial dysfunction is characterized by the reduction of vasodilators NO and PGI2, and the increase of various endothelial derived contracting factors [23, 24]. This impairment may also predispose the vessels to vasospasm [22]. This decrease in NO bioavailability is thought to cause a decreased level of expression of endothelial cell NO synthetase (eNOS) [21], thus reducing the likelihood of vasodilation from occurring. Apart from its vasodilatory role, NO is also responsible for resisting inflammatory activation of endothelial functions such as expression of the adhesion molecule VCAM-1 [5]. NO has also appeared to exert anti-inflammatory action at the level of gene expression by interfering with nuclear factor kappa B (NFÃŽ ºB), which is important in regulating numerous genes involved in inflammatory responses [5]; these inflammatory responses will be discussed later on. The other common vasodilator, PGI2 is also reduced during endothelial dysfunction. PGI2 is a major product of vascular cyclooxygenase (COX) and is considered a potent inhibitor of platelet aggregation [20]. Like NO, PGI2 is an endothelial derived product which is often produced in response to shear stress (commonly caused by blood flow) and hypoxia [20]. By understanding the other roles NO and PGI2 play within the endothelium, we can see that a decrease in one or the other ultimately leads to dysfunction and disruption of the endothelium. As a result of vasodilator reduction, the endothelium often synthesizes and releases EDCFs causing endothelial constriction. The major constrictors include superoxide anions (which act by scavenging NO – thus further reducing NO levels), thromboxane A2, endothelin-1, AII, and ÃŽ ±-adrenergic factors [20]. Unlike the vasodilators, the vasoconstrictors utilize two signaling pathways. The ÃŽ ± 1-adrenergic receptor signaling pathways utilize the same G-coupled pathway as the vasodilators (discussed previously) however instead of cGMP; it ut ilizes cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) [1]. The other constrictors including thromboxane A2, endothelin-1 and AII utilize the cAMP-dependent protein kinase pathway; where the activated kinase acts as a trigger for various physiological effects, including increased contractile activity on the arterioles [1]. The overall progression of atherosclerotic plaque formation is best illustrated in Figure 1, which showcases multiple events that are simultaneously triggered by endothelial dysfunction. Apart from the imbalance of vasoactivators, endothelial dysfunction is responsible for initiating two other separate pathways that also participate in the progression of plaque formation and growth. Lipoprotein entry is the next initial stage in atherogenesis. This is then followed by the modification and entry of lipoproteins, the recruitment of leukocytes, and the migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells. Overall this â€Å"evolutionary† process best represents the formation of atherosclerotic plaques within the vessels. Lipoprotein Entry and Modification: Lipid accumulation is another major manifestation of the vascular response to injury, and is accelerated by the entry and modification of lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are composed of both lipids and proteins, and help transport water-insoluble fats throughout the bloodstream [7, 25]. The lipid core is surrounded by hydrophilic phospholipids, free cholesterol and apoliporoteins; where the protein portion has a charged group, aimed outwards to attack water molecules, thus making the lipoproteins soluble in the plasma of the blood [26, 27]. In total, there are five major classes of lipoproteins: the chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs), intermediate low density lipoproteins (ILDLs), low density lipoproteins (LDLs), and the high density lipoproteins (HDLs). The chylomicrons provide the primary means of transport of dietary lipids, while the VLDLs, ILDLs, LDLs, and HDLs function to transport endogenous lipids [16, 25]. Of the lipoproteins, the LDLs are of most interest. Inter estingly high LDL levels often correlate closely with atherosclerosis development, whereas high HDL levels protect against atherosclerosis; the HDL protection is thought to be related to its ability to transport lipids away from the peripheral tissues back to the liver for disposal [7]. A key component to the accumulation of lipids is due to the endothelial dysfunction, which causes a loss of selective permeability and barrier function. This ineffective permeability allows for the entry of LDLs into the intima lining of the vessels [7, 16]. The highly elevated circulating levels of LDLs are colloquially referred to as having hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, or dyslipidemia [7, 25-27]. In either case, once the LDL has entered the intima of the vessel, the LDL starts accumulating in the subendothelial space by binding to components of the extracellular matrix, the proteoglycans; lipolytic and lysosomal enzymes also play a role in lipid accumulation [27]. Importantly, statins lower circulating cholesterol levels by indirectly inhibiting HMG CoA-reductase (rate limiting enzyme required for endogenous cholesterol biosynthesis [16]. This results in the decrease of intracellular cholesterol levels, which leads to the activation of SREBP, upregulation of LDL receptors, and the clearance from plasma degradation of LDL; thus reducing circulating LDL levels [16]. When the lipid accumulation increases the residence time that the LDL occupies within the vessel wall, it allows more time for lipoprotein modification [7]; which appears to play a key role in the continued progression of the atherosclerotic plaque. Often, endothelial cell dysfunction leads to the altered expression of lipoprotein receptors used to internalize and modify various lipoproteins [14]. These changes usually occur via oxidative modifications. The oxidative modification hypothesis (figure 2) focuses on the concept that LDLs in their native state are often not atherogenic [27]. It is believed, however, that LDLs are modified chemically by the endothelial cells [26] and are readily internalized by macrophages (formation of the foam cell) via the ‘scavenger-receptor’ pathway [27]. Essentially the â€Å"trapped† LDL within the subendothelial space is oxidized by the resident vascular smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, and macrophages. As a result t

The Golden Ratio Essay -- Mathematics Numbers Phi Essays

The Golden Ratio Certain pictures, objects, and animals appeal to the human mind more than others. Proportions and images of symmetry often contribute to our fascination with them. Often, when examined carefully, you may find a common â€Å"coincidence† between man made objects and those found naturally in nature. This fluke, however, may be used to ascertain various mathematical relationships between these objects. This paper will introduce the golden ratio and weigh its significance on math, art, and nature. 1.6180339887†¦. has been given many names varying from the â€Å"golden ratio† first coined by the Greeks, to the â€Å"golden rectangle† and â€Å"golden section†, â€Å"phi† named after Phidias a renowned Greek sculptor, as well as the â€Å"divine proportion† conceived by Leonardo da Vinci. (Blacker, The Golden Ratio) Simply put, the golden ratio is the length to width of rectangles used in art and nature. This ratio is considered to be the most agreeable arrangement, mathematically and artistically, to the eye. Perhaps the first to use the golden ratio were the Egyptians. Many (if not all) of the pyramids were made with the golden ratio kept solely in mind†¦ as if they were made only using the ratio. Later, the Greeks began using it in their architecture as well as their sculptures. Phidias and others popularized the golden ratio by basing their achievements on it. The Parthenon, specifically, as well as several other buildings and sculptures were the subject of which the ratio has left its mark. The Greeks and the Egyptians were by far not the only people to have been affected by the number. Famous painters and mathematicians have also recognized the ratio’s significance. Perhaps the most famous and blatant use of the gol... ...rt. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1994. Blacker, Steve and Jeanette Polanski and Marc Schwach. â€Å"Golden Ratio: Fibonacci in Nature.† Dec. 8, 1999. http://www.geom.umn.edu/~demo5337/s97b/spiral.html Blacker, Steve and Jeanette Polanski and Marc Schwach. â€Å"Golden Ratio.† Dec. 8, 1999. http://www.geom.umn.edu/~demo5337/s97b/art.htm Brown, Kevin. â€Å"Math Pages: The Golden Pentagon.† Dec. 11, 1999. http://www.seanet.com/~ksbrown/kmath153.htm â€Å"Fibonacci & The Golden Ratio.† Dec. 8, 1999. http://www.aegsp.br/hs/fib/ Knott, Dr. Ron. â€Å"Fibonacci Numbers and Nature.† Dec. 8, 1999. http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html#Rabbits Snyder, Brian Joseph. â€Å"The Golden Mean – The Golden Section.† Dec. 7, 1999. http://www.netreach.net/people/waterboy/phiratio/ Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History. New York: Prentice Hall, 1999.

Evil Villains in Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen Essay -- Northanger A

Evil Villains in Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen In Jane Austen’s, Northanger Abbey, John Thorpe and General Tilney are portrayed as unpleasant villains. Villains are defined as, â€Å"a wicked or evil person; a scoundrel† (The American Heritage Dictionary http://www.dictionary.com/search?q=VILLAIN). Austen description of both men as power-hungry, easily upset, and manipulative follows this definition. She introduces both characters in separate parts of the book, however simultaneously she delivers a stunning example of their identical villainous personalities. Through the portrayal of John Thorpe and General Tilney as villains, Austen comments on the male supremacy that permeates through her time. In the first half of the novel, John Thorpe stands out as the villain of the novel. He is introduced as a, â€Å"stout young man of middling height, who, with a plain face and ungraceful form, seemed fearful of being too handsome unless he wore the dress of a groom, and to much like a gentleman unless he were easy where he ought to be civil, and imprudent where he might be allowed to be easy† (Austen 25). Following the initial description, John is introduced to Catherine. Rather than engaging in personable dialogue, he brags about the quality and speed of his horses, his authority on ascertaining distances, and his proficiency in leading his horses. Immediately, the reader is struck with the similarity of John to an immature ‘schoolboy’. Although Austen continues to portray John as juvenile, she does not develop him into the villain until later in the novel. While Catherine’s love grows for her hero, Henry Tilney, John also develops affection for Catherine. During this struggle for Catherine’s love, John begins to mature into the ‘classic villain.’ For example, during a normal evening at the ball, Catherine had promises to dance with Henry Tilney. However, Thorpe approaches Catherine and declares, â€Å"What is the meaning of this? - I thought you and I were to dance together† (Austen 46). Catherine is flustered since this declaration is false. After a barrage of half-truths, John once again talks about his beloved horses and his knowledge of them. Suddenly without any type of closure, he is wisped away by the â€Å"resistless pressure of a long string of passing ladies† (Austen 47). In this section of the novel, John Thorpe quickly becomes dislikeable and Jan... ... that she came from a wealthy family of consequence. However, when the General bumps into John during Catherine’s visit at Northanger Abbey, John amends his story. Bitter that Catherine had fallen in love with Henry and rejected him, he changes his entire story and tells the General she only from a middle class family. Jane Austen completes her story with a â€Å"Cinderella ending† of Catherine and Henry marrying. However, her novel is more than a fairytale ending. Although often wrong and misguided in their judgments, she shows the supremacy of males that permeated throughout her society. Jane Austen takes us from a portrayal of men as rude, self-centered, and opinionate to uncaring, demanding, and lying to downright ruthless, hurtful, and evil. John Thorpe’s and General Tilney’s total disregard for others feelings and their villainous ways prove Austen’s point. Whether reading Northanger Abbey for the happy ending or the moral lesson, this novel has much to offer. Bibliography The American Heritage Dictionary. Fourth Edition. 9 November 2000. 4 March 2002. http://www.dictionary.com/search?q=VILLAIN Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Classics.

iNTERNATIONAL TRADE :: essays research papers fc

International Trade Understanding the culture in a country or region in which you are doing business is a critical skill for the international business person. Without this knowledge, a successful outcome to the business venture can be in jeopardy. â€Å"The level of world output in any given year influences the level of international trade in that year.† By this it means that the slower the world economy is the less international trade and the higher the economy the higher the volume of trade. "Globalization" is a term that came into popular usage in the 1980's to describe the increased movement of people, knowledge and ideas, and goods and money across national borders that has led to increased interconnectedness among the world's populations, economically, politically, socially and culturally. Although globalization is often thought of in economic terms, this process has many social and political implications as well. Many in local communities associate globalization with modernization. At the global level, globalization is thought of in terms of the challenges it poses to the role of governments in international affairs and the global economy. There are heated debates about globalization and its positive and negative effects. While globalization is thought of by many as having the potential to make societies richer through trade and to bring knowledge and information to people around the world, there are many others who perceive globalization as contributing to the exploitation of the poor by the rich, and as a threat to traditional cultures as the process of modernization changes societies. There are some who link the negative aspects of globalization to terrorism. To put a complicated discussion in simple terms, they argue that exploitative or declining conditions contribute to the lure of informal "extremist" networks that commit criminal or terrorist acts internationally. And thanks to today's technology and integrated societies, these networks span throughout the world. It is in this sense that terrorism, too, is "globalized." Increasingly over the past two centuries, economic activity has become more globally oriented and integrated. Some economists argue that it is no longer meaningful to think in terms of national economies; international trade has become central to most local and domestic economies around the world. Among the major high-income economies, sometimes referred to as the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, 60 percent of the total economic production, or GDP, is associated with international trade. Thirty-four percent comes from trade between high-income and low-and middle-income nations.

Cost-benefit analysis is a term that is used to refer

Cost-benefit analysis is a term that is used to refer to the process of comparing the benefits against the costs of one or more options in order to choose the alternative which is the best or the most profitable. It entails assessing all the costs and all the benefits then determining the difference. In order to decide on whether to buy locally produced products or not to buy, one needs to carry out a comprehensive analysis of the benefits as well as the costs of such a move. Examples of products that can be bought locally or imported are foodstuffs e. g. vegetables.Buying locally means buying foodstuffs and products that are produced within one’s locality. Buying locally produced foodstuffs has its costs as well as benefits. Among the benefits of buying locally produced foodstuffs against non-locally produced are that locally produced foodstuffs require less energy to produce than imported ones. (http://www. sustainabletable. org/issues/buylocal/). For instance, the supply ch ain from the farmer to the consumer is short unlike in imported items which have to undergo long distribution chains before reaching the consumers.This leads to less environmental pollution because little transportation is needed to move the produce to the consumer. Processing and transportation of produce requires a large amount of fuel. This leads to more emissions of carbon monoxide and the greenhouse gases thus environmental degradation. These are the gases that lead to global warming. (http://www. sustainabletable. org/issues/energy/). The greenhouse gases also cause direct harm to human health through emission of toxic by-products when they are burnt. Another benefit of buying locally produced foodstuffs is that fewer amounts of fertilizers are used in producing them.Since manures are heavy, they can not be transported over long distances hence are used within short distances. Imported foods would require artificial fertilizers and pesticides for their production since they ar e produced on a large scale. Large amounts of energy are expended in producing these fertilizers hence environmental degradation. Furthermore these fertilizers and pesticides have direct negative impacts on the environment in that they pollute the soil and consequently water. In addition, locally produced foods require less processing and preservation measures than the non-locally produced.Since their distribution distances are not long, locally produced foods can be accessed by consumers when they are still fresh hence do not require processing or use of preservatives. On the other hand, non-locally produced foods require processing and preservation in order to make them reach the intended destinations in usable forms. Processing requires energy thus additional costs. Since local foods do not need large-scale farms to produce, the concept of organic farming can be applied. This is opposed to non-locally produced which are technology intensive i. e.require heavy machinery and large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides to produce. Thus, in terms of energy costs, locally produced foodstuffs are more energy efficient and environmentally friendly than the non-locally produced foodstuffs. (http://www. localharvest. org/buylocal. jsp). Adopting this concept will lead to the world saving a large amount of energy that can be used elsewhere. This system is also good in that it reduces substantially the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. This is good in that effects of the gases on the environment i. e. global warming are reduced.Locally produced foods also have more benefits to the consumer than the non-locally produced. Firstly, locally produced foods can be accessed when they are still fresh hence are more nutritious. This ensures that the quality of the produce is guaranteed. Due to the fact that agricultural products are highly perishable, non-locally produced foodstuffs need processing and preservation to improve their shelf life (http://www. sustainabletable. o rg/issues/buylocal/). Due to this, their quality is not guaranteed. The preservatives also alter the nutrition of the products and can also be harmful to consumers’ health.Processing requires energy hence fossil fuels are used which lead to environmental pollution. Another reason why consumers would prefer locally produced foods to non-locally produced is that they get the products from people they recognize. Thus locally produces foodstuffs are favored to non-locally produced ones due to the above factors. The cost estimates of local foodstuffs are far less than those for non-local foodstuffs. In accordance with the above analysis, it is very cheap to produce foods locally.This is because the farmers can use sustainable production methods which have less harmful effects to the environment (http://www. localharvest. org/buylocal. jsp. ). Locally produced foods also have less energy requirements as opposed to non-locally produced ones. This is due to the fact that less transpo rtation and processing is required for locally produced foodstuffs. Based on the above facts, it is imperative to note that buying locally produced foodstuffs is much more beneficial than buying non-locally produced foods. Not only does doing this support the fight against environmental degradation but also helps improve a peoples’ health. Fresh foodstuffs are nutritious good for a healthy living.This policy would also enhance reservation of the non-renewable energy sources. This policy should be adopted because it can lead to the creation of self reliant food economies and consequently promoting food self sufficiency. REFERENCES Buy Local. Retrieved on 18th April, 2008. From (http://www. sustainabletable. org/issues/buylocal/) Sustainable Table; healthy foods. Retrieved 18th April, 2008. From (http://www. sustainabletable. org/issues/buylocal/) Local Harvest. Retrieved on 18th April, 2008. From (http://www. localharvest. org/buylocal. jsp

How Do Poems Use Language to Create Imaginary Worlds?

Poppies by Mary Oliver and A Martian Sends A Postcard Home by Craig Raine, with the use of unconventional metaphors and extremely detailed observation encourage us to look upon the ordinary in a way that leads us to explore our own human nature. Unexpected connections between a previously ordinary object and something that at first seemed totally unrelated can paint a picture of another context within which we can better examine our own existence (Hirsch).This is demonstrated quite well in A Martian Sends A Postcard Home in nearly every stanza, with the alien viewpoint of everyday things leading to considerable thought about the things we take for granted. The line, â€Å"At night, when all the colours die† is a particularly vivid way of describing day turning to night and implies the alien land must be either bright all the time or of another dimension where night and day have no meaning.Similarly, Poppies describes a field of flowers in terms that evoke the passage of life i tself, with lines such as, â€Å"Of course nothing stops the cold, black, curved blade from hooking forward— of course, loss is the great lesson† describing night falling, the death of a flower as it wilts and the blade of a scythe, invoking images of the Grim Reaper (Wu). All these observations are made as metaphors as opposed to similes, forcing the reader to consider each point as being the same thing as that which it is being compared to.In doing so, the reader is actually is involved in surmising the meaning of the passage through the metaphor, in collaboration with the author (Hirsch). This allows the reader to have a deeper connection with the work than merely taking in what the author is putting across, in a way that encourages extensive internal processing of the ideas more than just a literal and factual description of the ideas the author wanted to portray may have.In Poppies, when Oliver says, â€Å"†¦that light is an invitation to happiness†¦Ã¢â ‚¬  the reader is invited to think about not just poppies in a field but their own life and how they have the opportunity to make the best of the life they lead before the â€Å"curved blade† of the night (Wu). In a slightly different vein, A Martian Sends A Postcard Home is suggesting that we pay closer attention to the world around us, a world in which â€Å"Mist is when the sky is tired of flight and rests its soft machine on he ground† and also provokes feelings of nostalgia of when the reader was young and looked up at the clouds, the â€Å"soft machines†, for long periods, looking at them in a new way (Williams 454). The poets also have an eye for incredible detail in the world around us that they use to paint a picture of a scene in layers, allowing the reader to form a three dimensional picture of the scene in their head in vivid detail.In Poppies, for example, the one field of poppies is focused on in at almost every angle; the way they sway in the win d, the way the shine, their â€Å"yellow hair† and â€Å"rough and spongy gold† leading to almost a baptism of flowers, â€Å"washed and washed in the river of earthly delight†. This seeming progression of wonder, joy, light and rebirth through the steady application of description after description of the one object (the field of poppies) give the reader pause to think on their own progression through life.With the occasional interjection about the â€Å"darkness† and the â€Å"deep, blue night† we are reminded that death is looming but it is the happiness we can create beforehand that is important, and we should pay attention to that detail (Wu). A Martian Sends A Postcard Home does not have, on the surface, as much of a singular message to communicate; it presents us with a series of common-day objects perceived through an alien lens as completely new and how they would appear to a being with no frame of reference.However, it is precisely this a lien frame of reference that gives the reader a connection between their observations and their inner thoughts. Lines such as, â€Å"Adults go to a punishment room with water and nothing to eat†, though describing the base act of going to the toilet in a humorous manner also can lead to reflection on the nature of punishment and our own frame of reference for all things around us which we observe when we don’t quite understand their context.It encourages the reader to reach harmony between our â€Å"inner selves† and the universe around them, which some argue is the entire function of poetry itself. Both these poems utilize this detail to create a living imaginary world for the reader to consider the ideas put forth within (Couch 12). In conclusion, when both metaphor and detail are brought together in this way, with the poetic language that is employed in the two pieces, a powerful representation of â€Å"truth† and â€Å"harmony† is communicated to the reader in a way that possibly the standard prose form cannot.In this essay I have shown how the poets, by including the reader in the process of forming the ultimate meaning of what they are reading by the use of metaphor, together with painting their descriptions in great detail but in such a way that obscures instant recognition of what is being described, lead the reader to deeper thought about the issues raised and about their own humanity as it relates to the world around them. Works Cited Couch, Arthur Thomas.Poetry. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1914. Print. Hirsch, Edward. â€Å"Metaphor: A Poet is a Nightingale by Edward Hirsch . † Poetry Foundation. N. p. , 23 Jan. 2006. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. . Williams, David G. â€Å"Elizabeth Bishop and the ‘Martian' Poetry of Craig Raine and Christopher Reid. † English Studies: A Journal of English Language and Literature 78. 5 (1997): 451-458. Print. Wu, Alexis. â€Å"Mary Oliver's Poppies. † alexiswupoetry. N. p. , n. d. Web. 7 Oct. 2012. .

Health Care Utilization Paper Essay

Well it seems like community health centers expand to provide care for those with little or no income. The federal government can provide funding to develop additional access to medical communities that are struggling financially. People in the U.S. utilize health care services for many reasons, to prevent disease, prevent future illnesses, and to eliminate pain. Men have the tendency to wait until the last minute to check their health status or until they develop a symptom. Women on the other hand are different in this aspect. The factors that John’s health care utilization is that the situation he is in, his approved physician is 40 minutes away and that the appointment has to be set 2 weeks in advance. That creates a dilemma in John’s life because now he feels like he is stuck without an option. There is a solution to solve this problem if we take the information that is given in the story. With John and his daddy’s condition, that makes it more difficult to g et the appropriate care that they need because they have to wait for two weeks to get treated. I believe that with the proximity and the times that they accept patients because they don’t offer weekend and evening hours, I think John should find another option. The kind of insurance he has, the area he lives in, his level of income, his transportation issues and his health conditions are some of the factors that affect John. You can’t put your health on hold; if it needs immediate attention then you should go and seek what is nearest to you regardless of the coverage. There are local doctors and him and his father both should go before things progress further. I think that the factors that are equal, they can be mutable and immutable. Things that could be mutable can be that John could possibly get a job that already has good health insurance coverage instead of having to rely on Medicaid. He could get a higher paying job to pay for the medical expenses if he doesn’t have health coverage. John can change his living arrangements and move closer to a health care facility that accepts his form of insurance such as Medicaid and that could help him to be in the distance of getting better health care. Also John has transportation issues so to solve that, if John has doctor’s appointments,  Medicaid can pay for the ride at no charge to get him to his destination. That is an added benefit that Medicaid offers and is very useful. The things that are immutable are John’s health condition, that situation cannot be modified or changed as well as his father’s health condition. It can be with proper nutrition or change the lifestyle but probably, the condition is unlikely to change. Aside from John and his Primary Care Provider, some other stakeholders involved in receiving Medicaid can include senior Medicaid and agency leadership, the State legislature and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS). The reason for a stakeholder is for care management and managing expectations of the care program. The rise and cost and spending effects that many stakeholders include are things like the consumer, government, physicians, and elderly. Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP). August 2014. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. http://www.ahrq.gov/research/data/hcup/index.html

Music the ultimate mood fix

Just Like a roller-coaster there are ups and downs. Sometimes this can be overwhelming. We all need a safe zone, that place where we go when we need comfort, motivation, or Just some company. For many of us, that safe zone is music. To get further insight into how music affects people, we invited members of the public to share their experiences and the variety of ways music plays Into their dally lives and mood. Certain songs make you ponder over what kind of person you want o be, type of role or purpose you have In this world, or what kind of an effect you have on others around you,† said Prohibit Kuris, a 22-year-old college student reflecting on the self-analyzing effects of music. Speaking on her deep dependence on music, 26-year-old HRS executive, Invasion, had this to say, â€Å"You may have heard people say that they cannot live without music. However, when I say that It Is Impossible for me to live without music, I truly mean It! According to Nava, â€Å"Classical and instrumental music allows me to truly immerse myself in tradition and pulls me into the vibe and mood that the song is projecting allowing me to escape the pressures of daily life,† she said. â€Å"Music definitely impacts my mood. Some people allow their music to dictate their mood, like listening to sad songs and then becoming sadder because of it. While for others, their mood determines their music, choosing a happy song to suit their happy mood.As for me, personally my music follows my mood,† said Shown Were, a 25-year-old PR Manager. Commenting on the inherent ability of music to change moods, Useful Suzan, a 24- year-old student said, ‘For me whenever I am stressed and rushing to complete an assignment on time, I always turn to ballads and love songs as it helps me relax and focus. † â€Å"I'm addicted to music! No matter what, I always find ways to satisfy my craving. If I go too long without music I tend to get depressed,† said Hafiz Gaffer, a 21 -year-old student.In line with her energetic lifestyle, Hafiz says she only listens to up-tempo Ran and dance music, â€Å"My music must suit my life. I'm happy-go-lucky and always on the go, so my music must be the same. † Going against the grain however, George Kong, a 19-year-old Engineering student said, â€Å"For me personally, USIA has no effect on my mood. If I am happy, I'm happy and if I'm sad, I'm sad; music doesn't have any impact on it. † Seeking a historical perspective, we spoke to Kola' Rant, a 42-year-old music teacher. Historically speaking, music has always been Intrinsically connected to emotions. Many of my students have varying tastes In music but the one thing that remains the same is that music holds a deep emotional connection to them,† she said. â€Å"Music psychology is a recognized and very much growing field of psychology. From what I know, every human being possesses a base deed to connect to something and music is one simple ou tlet for connection that we have.That Is why so many of us turn to music to satisfy ourselves In times of depression or frustration,† said Mark Km a psychology lecturer speaking on why Shown said, â€Å"Music is the soundtrack of your life, no matter if you are feeling depressed or ecstatic, music is what we all turn to. † Through these opinions it is clear that while people have different taste in music, the one thing that they all have in common is that music plays a vital part in each and every one of their lives whether they are feeling happy or sad. 2 3 4

Energy and Homeostasis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Energy and Homeostasis - Research Paper Example The lipostatic model is concerned with the fat molecules in the body that determine the need of food and energy, and its regulation. The intake and termination of meal may be dependent on several internal and external factors that are studied as the signals. The number and quantity of meals generally depend and vary with different species of animals. It is not fixed and different species have different mechanisms that trigger the need for food intake and how they maintain their balance of energy (Woods et al, 1998, pp.1378-1382). The neurohumoral system is mostly responsible for the process of energy homeostasis in the body. Hormones play a major role in this regard. The central nervous system (CNS) of the body has direct effects on the balance of energy in response to the fat molecules within a body. Leptin and insulin are two major signals that function in association with the CNS. The catabolic response to leptin administration in the body determines the gain or loss in weight as well, along with the rates of metabolism. Considering the central effector pathways, the study reveals that the regulation of energy homeostasis is largely dependent on the hypothalamus containing neuroal systems. Depending on the level of fat, pathways like ARC-PVN NPY might be activated. Also, hormones such as glucocorticoid might be secreted in the process as an effect of NPY. Considering the central catabolic systems, the expression of proopiomelanocortin genes is restricted for ARC neurons that lead to parts necessary for en ergy homeostasis. Thus melanocortins have a significant role to play in the process of regulation (Woods et al, 1998, pp.1378-1382). The corticotrophin releasing hormone is also another highly essential component of the process of energy homeostasis in the body. Food intake may be reduced with the implication of this hormone thus leading to loss of body weight. Also, these hormones may have a direct linkage

The Chemistry of Biodiesel Production Term Paper

The Chemistry of Biodiesel Production - Term Paper Example Biodiesel is one such form of hydrocarbon based fuels. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines biodiesel fuel as monoalkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from a renewable lipid feedstock, such as vegetable oil or animal fat (Zhang et al. 1). It is made by chemically combining any natural oil, fat or recycled grease with a suitable alcohol in the presence of a catalyst. The general equation that can be used to predict the amount of biodiesel that will be made from fats and oils is as shown: 100 pounds of oil + 10 pounds of methanol > 100 pounds of biodiesel + 10 pounds of glycerol Biodiesel can be used as neat (B 100) or in a blend with petroleum diesel for example a blend of 20 % biodiesel with 80 % petro-diesel by volume, is termed â€Å"B 20† (van Gerpen et al. 22). ... The Biox process involves the use of a co-solvent, tetrahydrofuran (THF), to solubilize the methanol. THF enhances solubility of the alcohol in the triglyceride phase and thus hastens the otherwise slow reaction (van Gerpen et al. 38). With THF the reaction takes 5 to 10 minutes at a low temperature of 30 °C. On the other hand, in the supercritical process a high alcohol to oil ratio (42:1) mixture is subjected to supercritical conditions – temperatures of 350 – 400  °C and pressures of 1200 pounds per square inch and above. So far, the huge capital and operating costs incurred in performing the supercritical reactions have made scaling up of this process to be quite difficult (van Gerpen et al. 40). The most common way to produce biodiesel is through transesterification. Transesterification refers to a catalyzed chemical reaction involving vegetable oil and an alcohol to yield fatty acid alkyl esters (which is the biodiesel) and glycerol. Catalyzed processes ca n be further subdivided into three major processes: acid catalyzed processes, alkali catalyzed processes and enzyme catalyzed processes (Zhang et al. 2). The alkali catalyzed process involves use of a basic catalyst such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide whereas the acid catalyzed process involves the use of an acid such as sulfuric, phosphoric, hydrochloric, or organic sulfonic acids as the catalyst. In enzyme catalyzed processes, lipases are used to catalyze transesterification in either aqueous or non-aqueous systems. Acid catalyzed and alkali catalyzed processes are the ones that continue to receive the most attention largely because the production of enzymes is significantly costly and their reactions remarkably slower (Zhang et al. 2). As mentioned previously,

Political and Geography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Political and Geography - Research Paper Example The United Nations actively promotes global peace and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons (Basu 10). The Body has negotiated peaceful settlements that have ended numerous regional conflicts. This is evidenced by the border demarcations especially in Serbia, Yugoslavia and numerous Asian countries (Basu 68). The body has safeguarded human rights through several declarations and covenants that aim at ensuring protection of universal human rights. In this regard, the Human rights Commission advocates for the rights of women, children, minorities, immigrants and refugees (Basu 99). United Nation bodies, institutions, and agencies such as Economic and Social Council, World Health Organization, and United National Development Program have facilitated economic and social development of the member countries. Financial entities under the UN have facilitated international trade, foreign direct investments and transfer of technology among various countries in the world. United Nations has faci litated several peace keeping missions in African countries such as Burundi, Eritrea and Congo with the aim of ensuring peace (Basu 123). On the other hand, United Nations has suffered several criticisms and challenges. The body has encountered the problem of poor funding and control by the developed nations (Basu 221). The body is accused of being undemocratic since its has not taken actions against Israel which has continued taking unilateral actions against the neighboring countries. Accordingly, the body has lost credibility among African nations (Basu 228). The dependence on industrialized countries for financial support has hindered impartial decision-making of the United Nations Security Council. The Body failed in resolving the Cuban missiles, Iraq nuclear issue and terrorism issues. The Body is accused of failing to implement consensus in policies of dealing with climate change since industrialized countries are the highest carbon emitting nations (Basu

The best mistake i ever made was Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The best mistake i ever made was - Essay Example And I had to spend it very carefully. I was proposed two alternatives with comprehensive plan and allocation break down by the company I was working with. As I didn’t have sufficient time and money to experiment on both customers and sales team, I took a crucial decision by depending upon only on the sales force. I knew the importance of sales force feedback since it played a vital role in delivering the messages. Now I was ready with the team of 45 enthusiastic sales representatives for the drive with the target of USD 300,000 to reach in three months1. The product was launched and after a week I got the first email and that was not encouraging. It read â€Å"Dr. A had lots of queries about the messages we communicated. He called me again as he didn’t get what exactly the real benefit of the product was.† The next email read â€Å"Dr. B wants to maintain the same product for the time being. He wants me to come with more details about the product as he sees its possibilities in the market.† Our business unit director went crazy as even after ten days not a single box was sold. Now I realized that I committed a mistake. I should have tested it both externally and internally – first with customers and then with our sales team without cost. In the beginning I thought that I was probably going to fail but I didn’t give up. I went through all the negative feedback and tried to find out what went wrong about the campaign that the surgeons were left indecisive and confused though the product drew their attention. I worked the whole night studying how it could have been done better and I prepared a Product Monograph in one day. I got the approval in two days and in the beginning of the second week of the second month my team started providing all the surgeons they met in previous month with detailed information that they needed to make a favorable decision. By the end of second month we achieved