Definition and Examples of Confirmation in Rhetoric

Definition and Examples of Confirmation in Rhetoric Definition In classical rhetoric, the confirmation is the main part of a speech or text in which logical arguments in support of a position (or claim) are elaborated. Also called confirmatio. Etymology:  From the Latin verb confirmare, meaning strengthen or establish. Pronunciation: kon-fur-MAY-shun Confirmation is one of the classical rhetorical exercises known as the  progymnasmata. These exercises, originating in ancient Greece with the rhetorician Aphthonius of Antioch, were designed to teach rhetoric by providing exercises in increasing difficulty, beginning with simple storytelling and increasing to complex arguments. In the confirmation exercise, a student would be asked to logically reason in favor of some topic or argument found in myth or literature. The rhetorical opposite of confirmation is refutation, which involves arguing against something instead of in its favor. Both require logical and/or moral arguments to be marshaled in similar ways, simply with opposite goals. See Examples and Observations below. Also see: The Parts of a SpeechWhat Are the Progymnasmata? Examples of Confirmation The few bright meteors in mans intellectual horizon could well be matched by woman, were she allowed to occupy the same elevated position. There is no need of naming the De Staels, the Rolands, the Somervilles, the Wollstonecrafts, the Wrights, the Fullers, the Martineaus, the Hemanses, the Sigourneys, the Jagiellos, and the many more of modern as well as ancient times, to prove her mental powers, her patriotism, her heroism, her self-sacrificing devotion to the cause of humanitythe eloquence that gushes from her pen or from her tongue. These things are too well known to require repetition. And do you ask for fortitude of mind, energy, and perseverance? Then look at woman under suffering, reverse of fortune, and affliction, when the strength and power of man has sunk to the lowest ebb, when his mind is overwhelmed by the dark waters of despair. She, like the tender plant, bent but not broken by the storms of life, now only upholds her own hopeful courage, but, like the tender shoots of the ivy, clings around the tempest-fallen oak, to bind up the wounds, peak hope to his faltering spirit, and shelter him from the returning blast of the storm.(Ernestine Rose, An Address on Womens Rights, 1851) This food would likewise bring great custom to taverns; where the vintners will certainly be so prudent as to procure the best receipts for dressing it to perfection, and consequently have their houses frequented by all the fine gentlemen.(Jonathan Swift,  A Modest Proposal) Explanations of Confirmation Cicero on ConfirmationThe confirmation is that part of a narration that, by marshaling arguments, lends force, authority, and support to our case. . . .All argumentation is to be carried on either by analogy or by the enthymeme. Analogy is a form of argument that moves from assent on certain undisputed facts through approval of a doubtful proposition due to the resemblance between what is granted and what is doubtful. This style of argument is threefold: the first part consists of one or more similar instances, the second part is the point we wish to have conceded, and the third is the conclusion that reinforces the concessions or shows the consequences of the argument.Enthymematic reasoning is a form of argument that draws a probable conclusion from the facts under consideration.(Cicero, De Inventione)Aphthonius on Confirmation in the ProgymnasmataConfirmation is showing proof for any matter at hand. But one must confirm neither those things clearly manifest nor those utterly imposs ible, but those that hold an intermediate position. And it is necessary for those engaged in confirmation to treat it in a manner that is exactly the opposite of refutation. First, one must speak of the good reputation of the proponent; then, in turn, to make the exposition and to make use of the opposite headings: the clear instead of the unclear, the probable for the improbable, the possible in place of the impossible, the logical instead of the illogical, the suitable for the unsuitable, and the expedient in place of the inexpedient.This exercise encompasses all the power of the art.(Aphthonius of Antioch, Progymnasmata, late fourth century. Readings from Classical Rhetoric, ed. by Patricia P. Matsen, Philip B. Rollinson, and Marion Sousa. Southern Illinois University Press, 1990)

Real Gas Definition and Examples

Real Gas Definition and Examples A real gas is a gas that does not behave as an ideal gas due to interactions between gas molecules. A real gas is also known as a nonideal gas because the behavior of a real gas in only approximated by the ideal gas law. When Real Gases Differ From Ideal Gases Usually, its fine to use the ideal gas law to make calculations for gases. However, the approximation gives considerable error at very high pressure, near the critical point, or near the condensation point of a gas. Unlike ideal gases, a real gas is subject to: Van der Waals forcesCompressibility effectsNon-equilibrium thermodynamic effectsVariable specific heat capacityVariable composition, including molecular dissociation and other chemical reactions Real Gas Example While cool air at ordinary pressure behaves like an ideal gas, increasing its pressure or temperature increases the interactions between molecules, resulting in real gas behavior that cannot be predicted reliably using the ideal gas law. Sources Cengel, Yunus A. and Michael A. Boles (2010). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (7th Ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 007-352932-X.Xiang, H. W. (2005). The Corresponding-States Principle and its Practice: Thermodynamic, Transport and Surface Properties of Fluids. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-045904-2.

Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 64

Art - Essay Example Believers held that faith alone enable them to become accepted by God. They also taught scriptures (Kleiner 145). They refused to socialize with others at public events, did not eat sacrificial meals, and also refused to worship in roman temples. Jews and Judaism got tolerated in Rome pre-Constantine through a diplomatic treaty. The Jews shared various common beliefs and practices as those of pre-Constantine Rome. They were exempted from official roman sacrifices under different periods of roman rule under various conditions. Early Christians in Rome worshipped in private homes as congregational families in dwellings called ‘Tituli’ or Christian community house. In these dwellings the Christians would share dinner and remember the life of Jesus Christ. They would partake in the Eucharist, a Sermon given, and readings from the Old Testament would be shared. Jews also conducted their worship in similar fashion to Christians within private dwellings known as Jewish community houses. A further place of worship for early Christians was the ‘catacombs’, which were deep underground tunnels that served as burial places too (Kleiner 198). They offered a destination for intense pilgrimage for early Christians as well. Catacombs also served as meeting houses for persecuted Christian during the time. These dwellings in modern times can be viewed as the church for Christians and synagogues or temples for Jews. The Romanesque period of art and architecture was characterized by sacred rulers. The sacred nature of the rulers saw the art and architecture of the time become influenced by religion. The structure of Christian worship at the time was the church, which became viewed as a sacred building by the rulers (Kleiner 212). The Romanesque period saw an increase in the height and overall size of the church building. The roofs became vaulted and got supported by massive pillars, thick stone walls, and rounded arches. The creation of large

Reading Log 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reading Log 2 - Assignment Example Do the fast food industry companies truly care about the children and their amusement or are they simply using the innocence of the children to make themselves wealthier at the expense of the health of the children and the parents’ income? This question is challenging because it raises the pros and cons of these playgrounds and fast food advertisements and movie characters and the children. Children become happy as a result but what about their health for future and the increase in obesity in America due to the rise of these fast foods. Incorporating the sports personnel and Hollywood into the fast food industry increases more customers hence more profits. The idea of playground with supervision from adults even if they spend a lot of money is safe and more fun for the kids. Lastly is the idea of having children included in the formulation of new menus and characters as they get to feel part of the decision making and this boosts self-esteem and

Segregated Schools Essay Example for Free

Segregated Schools Essay â€Å"From the day she was born, the girl had seizure after seizure† quoted Gina Kolata. One new born, toddler, baby girl, was suspected that she had a genetic disorder. Doctors at Children’s Mercy Hospital in Kansas City, Mo, provided a sample of her blood which took only 50 hours and provided with an answer. The toddler had seizures after seizures that doctors frantically tried to keep her alive. Her doctors suspected a genetic disorder that they began a study of a new technique for quickly analyzing the DNA of newborns. The baby girl had a mortal gene mutation. â€Å"There was no treatment, there was not anything that could have changed the outcome†, Dr. Petrikin said which her family decided to let their baby go because her family did not want to see their baby girl in pain. She was only 5 weeks old. This all happened by not saying it was the baby girl’s fault or its mother’s. It just happened there is no explanation about why, did the baby girl have a disorder or disease. But there was not enough resources and medicine that could cure the disorder in time. My opinion on this article is that it is a well written article and gives a lot of details on what the situation is. I chose this article because I was mainly focusing on Medicine, Disease, and Health because I really like knowing about what kinds of different diseases there are and what just goes on in the human body. I don’t know if I agree with the article or disagree with the article because of how it turned out to be at the end with the baby girl. I think the article kind of turned out to be a story.

The Heroic Figure of the Frontier in The Last of the Mohicans :: essays papers

The Heroic Figure of the Frontier in The Last of the Mohicans In The Last of the Mohicans, many themes are introduced through the exploration of the frontier. As Cora, Alice and Heyward travel through the dark and dangerous forest they are surrounded by the raging war between England and France. Their unfortunate experience with Magua early in their travels ultimately leads to the introduction of Hawkeye and the Mohicans, which enlightens their minds to the differences between good and evil, civil and savage. There were many types of people in and around the colonies during this time, including the English, French, and Natives. When western expansion began, it led to the stratification of society, which separated each individual by sex, class, and race. Who set guidelines for the division of types of people? Furthermore, who was distinguished as civilized or savage? As Cora, Alice, and Heyward encounter unfamiliar races, they experience many new beliefs, and ways of life. To them anything different was considered strange and barbarous. The Mohicans think of the Hurons, or Iroquois as savage beings, incapable of normal human emotions or actions. We see this portrayed later in the novel, when the Indians attack the English troops as they leave Fort William Henry in peace. But how can Hawkeye, Chingachgook , and Uncas be thought of as civilized, if they too scalp, kill, and yell in their anger? It is shown however, that the Mohicans, demonstrate restraint, while the Iroquois were unable to control their rage. Another question is Hawkeye's position between the two classifications. He is said to be "the perfect frontier hero", and he feels at home in the forest rather than the settlements.

China’s Current Foreign Investment Environment Essay

Since the reform and opening up, China’s utilization of foreign investment is developing constantly. Along with the continuous improvement of the investment environment, the scale of foreign investment into China has been continuing expanding, which making China became the world’s second largest inflow of funds country. In the backdrop of China’s own economic development, in 2010, China became the second largest economy in the world, with a 5878. 6 billion dollars GDP at the same year.? Inside the country, foreign investments forming a large-scale foreign economy, and made important contribution to China’s economy and pushed it into the international economic system. I would like to talk about my own views about China’s current foreign investment environment, and analyze its opportunities and challenges. The quality of investment environment is directly related to the ability to attract high-quality foreign capital investment. Investment environment affected by many factors, and these factors work together, such as national macroeconomic policies, the basic anagement system of national government, the level of infrastructures and so on. First, I’d like to analyze the advantage of China’s current foreign investment environment, which directly related to the opportunity for China to attract foreign investment. Advantage: Good economic environment A country’s economic environment determines the future direction and development of the country’s economy, while China is in a good momentum of economic development stage. China’s macro-control policies become more and more mature after years of development, and have accumulated a lot of valuable experience. These policies have played a catalytic role for the country’s overall economic development. In order to develop an opening-up economy, in 2001, China became a member of the WTO, provided a good opportunity to make China’s economic more opening to the outside world and provide better investment environment. By accepting new things and developing China’s own economic growth model, the level of China’s economic grows rapidly. China has a strong domestic purchasing power, which reflects China’s huge market size and market potential. According to the effective demand theory of Keynes, due to the economic crisis, there is a lack of effective demand in western countries. Effective demand makes up with consumer demand and investment demand. Diminishing marginal propensity to consume, diminishing marginal efficiency of capital and liquidity preference is the three major social and psychological factors resulting in lack of consumption demand and investment demand, and then reduce the investment rate in developed countries.? Thus, more foreign investors would turn to find a better place to invest, it is the opportunity of China’s foreign investment environment. Advantage: Stable political environment Since China’s reform and opening up, people’s living standards continue to improve, China’s international status and international influence also has been enhanced at the same time. China could maintain a stable developing social environment. This is the basic guarantee of the investment environment. For example, the reason why Wal-Mart invested a large amount of money on shopping plaza, Sam shops, and community shops in China, is that Wal-Mart believed China has a stable political and social environment. A stable political and social environment is an important factor that can nsure the safety of foreign investments. Advantage: Acceptable infrastructure China has the world’s largest infrastructure construction. After years of development, the level of China’s infrastructure has been significantly improved. For example, the government invested a lot of money on the construction of transportation, electricity, water, and natural gas supply. The ability to provide materials and efficient transportation are favorable factors for attracting foreign investment. For example, Wal-Mart relies on its efficient logistics and distribution, and Wal-Mart decided to locate its distribution center in Tianjin. Tianjin is a coastal city, it not only reflects the natural advantage of Tianjin, but also reflects that in recent years, Tianjin’s tremendous achievements in constructing infrastructure. Advantage: Abundant labor China has the largest population in the world, and also provides a lot of cheap labor resources. Companies could enjoy cost advantages because of the cheap labor cost, especially in labor-intensive industries. China also has a comparative advantage in labor-intensive industries. Wal-Mart has 50,000 employees in China. The company gives their employees necessary training to meet the needs of high-tech industries and enjoys low cost of labor. Labor and capital are substitutes. In China, Wal-Mart’s development relies heavily on a lot of cheap labor. Imagine Wal-Mart has such a large number of employees in developed countries, the labor cost is much higher than in China, therefore, the actual profit must be affected. In this way, invest in China is a good choice for War-Mart. I have talked about the advantages of the foreign investment environment in China, and then I would like to talk about the disadvantages. Disadvantage: The laws of the market economy system are not perfect China joined the WTO in 2001, which means that China can be on an equal footing with the developed countries. However, China’s current economy is a market economy with Chinese characteristics, which has some differences with the mature market economies in developed countries. China’s market economy has been accepted for a short time, with little experience, many laws and regulations are unreasonable. China’s legal basis, the legislative process, operational mechanism is still not completely turned to erve market economy. Some existing laws and regulations confront with the principles of market economy. In terms of implementation, many laws and regulations are not uniformed in the implementation process, which have caused lots of problems for foreign investors. The imperfect legal system also affects employee’s rights. For example, Wal-Mart, Dell, Kodak and other foreign companies are refused to establish union in China. Actually, there are few laws to protect employee’s rights in China. These foreign companies are not afraid of these imperfect laws. Foreign companies like Wal-Mart, has a long operation history in many countries around the world, has many experiences of how to deal with workers in many countries, the legal basis in China is still very weak. Disadvantage: Low government efficiency Bureaucracy and corruption is a significant problem of the government. In the Chinese government system, the institutional settings are bloated, some department’s functions are unclear, policies and regulations are not uniformed between the various departments. These problems are particularly serious in recent years, greatly limits the improvement of the foreign investment environment. Foreign investors lack of a complete understanding of the Chinese government, they will face a lot of problems but do not know how to deal with it. Disadvantage: The low efficiency of the financial sector According to a survey conducted by the World Bank, China’s financial resources are concentrated on state-owned enterprises. For some companies with high potential, especially for some small and medium-sized private companies, they can not get strong financial support from the bank in a short time. Lack of support also leads these companies to the slow development or even the bankrupt. This is also a disadvantage to foreign investors. Foreign investors in China want to get the financial support have to face cumbersome procedures, mainly because of the financial institutions system is not perfect. At the same time, the interest rate is not determined by the market, which limits the flow of credit funds to the foreign companies, the private sector, and small enterprises. Disadvantage: The investment environment and labor distribution has regional differences China has large land area, but because of the natural causes, history and other factors, the investment environment and labor distribution are various from region to region. In the southeast coastal areas, infrastructure, labor resources, and policies are attractive to foreign investors. In the central and western regions, due to the geographical conditions and the limitations of natural resources, economic development is relatively slow, the policy is not attractive to foreign investors. For example, Wal-Mart opened 191 stores in China are mostly located in the southeast coastal areas. As shown below: Wal-Mart China mainland outlets maps Disadvantage: Resources and environmental constraints China is a big country. However, the resources for every person rank very low around the world. With the economic development, social development and the improvement of the consumption level, there are some limitations in the energy, land and other natural resources. China’s economic growth mainly depends on high pollution industries, and has not fundamental changed. Environmental pollution makes retail enterprises such as Wal-Mart faces a lot of problems in the procurement process. A lot of goods can not enter the mall because of the pollution. China’s foreign investment environment and also be limited, therefore, the transformation of economic growth mode is the top item of China’s current economic development. Summary In summary, the entry of foreign capital is an inevitable trend in China, which has made more demands on China’s investment environment. How to use the opportunities and advantages of the China’s investment environment are important issues need to be considered by the government. Only by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of China’s investment environment, developing relevant policies and regulations, increasing the anti-corruption efforts and transforming the economic development mode, China could improve the foreign investment environment to the next level. In this way, China could receive a more important role in the world economy.

Comparing Ancient and Classical Art Paper Essay

Through each culture, art is created even it wasn’t meant to be used for it. The Stonehenge and the Great Stupa are two of the oldest known structures in our history. The European civilization, based in the southern part of the United Kingdom, is one of the wonders of the world and the best-known prehistoric monument. The ancient Indian civilization is in India, is one of the three stupas in India. Many similarities and differences existed between these two civilizations, as even though they co-existed during a certain timeframe and in two different geographical areas. The differences in geography are both these civilizations were subjected to different kinds of exposure, which may have included contact with other civilization and cultural inheritance. The European civilization had a stronger emphasis on a central authority, while the Indians had a more decentralized structure, where powers were distributed over the cities and the states as well. The Art the Europeans created were more involved into making great monumental and gaudy structures while the Indians were more involved in creating smaller, more literary pieces of art. The Great Stupa’ at Sanchi is one of the most sophisticated and well-known monuments of all time; the marvelous icon is considered to be a cornerstone of Buddhist art, architecture, and religion. It stands tall and holds a powerful presence that is very symptomatic of its historical context. India is home to one the most symbolic and oldest stone structures known to man. This astonishing marvel built around 3rd century B.C by one of the most powerful and influential rulers of ancient India, Emperor Ashoka the Great. Asoka was the emperor of the Maurya Dynasty and ruled the Indian subcontinent from ca. 269 BCE to 232 B.C and during his reign, Ashoka converted to Buddhism and spread his Buddhist teachings through India, as well as having the great stupa erected to glorify and harbor the sacred Bu ddhist relics. This incredible  monument is majestic & unique in more ways than one. It has been said that the structure symbolizes the world mountain and â€Å"despite having the most perfect and well-preserved stupa, Buddhist art and architecture, it’s also surrounded by numerous other stupas, pillars, temples and living quarters for monks, the greater part of which had been buried.† Upon first recognition one could be lead to believe that because there are many other alluring attractions in India, it would be hard for this stupa to stand out and get its proper avowal. But this remarkable stone masterpiece has a wide range of spectacular things to offer, and tells us a very detailed story about early Buddhist life in India. Although the Great Stupa is among one of the many ancient monuments of India, few are of more interest than the tops of the stupas at Sanchi–Kanakheda. (Sayre, 2010) In the late Neolithic period, the megaliths at Stonehenge were erected. These stones were believed to be built anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000 BC and placed by the community just one hundred miles to the west of London, England. Nobody knows the initial purpose of Stonehenge; however, there are theories of what it may have meant to this culture of the Neolithic era. There have been discoveries of human remains found at Stonehenge that have been dated back to the time of its creation. This discovery advises that all of these stones put in place as a burial ground for this culture’s ancestors. The five trilithons that form a horseshoe are located in the center of a full circle of what looks like multiple, attached trilithons. This circular enclosure, much like the stone circular wall around The Great Stupa, is designed to increase the sacredness of what is inside. Another similarity of these structures is that they both serve as burial grounds. Stonehenge appears to be an organized grouping of stones; and The Great Stupa, appearing to be flawlessly symmetrical, were both created as complete perfection in the eyes of each of the respective cultures who created them (Sayre, 2010). The similarities and differences between the Stonehenge and the Great Stupa at Stanchi are interesting and more similarities than expected. The Stonehenge was built surrounding several thousand burial mounds which are very similar to the Great Stupa in a sense that the center circular brick formation was built over the relics of the Buddha. The Stonehenge and the Great Stupa were both built in a circular formation. The Stonehenge and the Great Stupa both are built with large pillars as well as differ in that sense because the  Stonehenge’s pillars have/had a rough, more natural/raw material for their standing pillars. The Stupa’s pillars had polished the pillars they had built and also covered them with narrative scenes from the life of the Buddha. The narratives scenes were for onlookers to be able to see. Although the Stupa had polished their pillars, they had also carved them to look like carved wood. Unlike the Stupa, the Stonehenge is believed to have shrunk in size over time as years passed. The Stupa expanded after a believed vandalism, which then led to the son of the emperor to expand the Stupa with stone slabs making it almost twice in size. Although the Stupa was expanded over time, numerous different times and the Stonehenge was not they were both however believed to be built in stages. The Stupa was built with stone carved to look like wood in some spots while the Stonehenge was built with wood timbers. Even though now it looks as though it’s just stone the opposite of the Stupa that looks as though it’s built with wood, as well as stone. The purpose of the Great Stupa at Sanchi is believed to be for religious purposes. For example, Emperor Asoka believed power rested within religious virtues and not military forces. The stupas also housed important relics of Buddha and the remains of Buddhist holy monks. The Great Stupa holds great cultural value because it is revered by the people because it is a place of worship and prayer. The purpose of the Stonehenge is set to be unknown, however there are a set of theories and out of the many there was one which stood out the most. Based on hundreds of human bones that were found at the site, the bones were over 1,000 years old. The human bones show a human burial cremation took place at the site. The cultural value of the Stonehenge could be it held a significant amount of information on when it was time for the people to harvest. The ancient artifacts created philosophers, great artwork, and great writing, which we find extremely useful to our daily education today. Reference Sayre, H. M. (2010). A World of Art. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. A guide to Sanchi† John Marshall. These â€Å"Greek-looking foreigners† are also described in Susan Huntington, â€Å"The art of ancient India†, p. 100 Lacy, Norris J, ed., The Arthurian Encyclopedia, New York, Peter Bedrick Books, 1986, article by Geoffrey Ashe, p. 529.

ECONOMIC INTEREST GROUP THEORY Essays

ECONOMIC INTEREST GROUP THEORY Essays ECONOMIC INTEREST GROUP THEORY Essay ECONOMIC INTEREST GROUP THEORY Essay Throughout the universe in recent old ages a figure of industries have been deregulated, for illustration, the banking industry, the telecommunications industry, and the air hose industry. There have been legion similar calls for a decrease in accounting ordinances ( utilizing such nomenclature as accounting standard overload ) but what would be some of the deductions if fiscal accounting were to be deregulated ( Craig Deegan-2000 ) . Major inquiries that may originate here are: Why those houses have been deregulated? And even if there was a demand of deregulating, why so, were they even regulated antecedently? What are the statements that are used in support of their determination? If the accounting ordinance is reduced, what is the mechanism that will coerce the houses to bring forth an optimum sum of information? ( Deegan, C. 2000 ) What is really called an optimum sum of information? Why after so many old ages the guru s of accounting have non been able to develop by and large acceptable principals for Financial Accounting? What are the grounds, why concerns find it hard to accept standardized regulations for the publication of their fiscal statements? Whilst being opposed on different evidences by different professionals, there are legion accounting ordinances throughout the universe that are extremely imposed in many states necessitating different regulations and rules in regard of their ( state s ) Torahs and statute laws. Therefore, the inquiry that comes in head is ; why fiscal accounting is so to a great extent regulated? The straightforward reply to this inquiry is to coerce the directors to bring forth an optimum sum of information about the operations of the administration. An optimum sum of information is the degree of information that reflects true position of the value of an administration. More inquiries that arise here are why, and under what fortunes houses do non desire to bring forth true and just accounting information about their operations? What are the statements that oppositions of this accounting ordinance provide in support of their position? And how they assure the production of the optimum sum of information about the houses in the absence of ordinance? To analyze both ( pro-regulation and anti-regulation ) views we need to hold a expression into different attacks for and against the ordinances that are used for puting criterions in accounting, and besides the statements provided by their advocators, every bit good as the unfavorable judgment to those statements. Free Market Perspective: Harmonizing to the free market position to accounting ordinance the accounting information should be treated like other goods. And the forces of demand and supply will guarantee the coevals of best possible sum of information ( Deegan, 2000 ) . Harmonizing to many writers, it is in the best involvement of the administration to supply information about its operations to the parties outside the administration. If any administration fails to bring forth this information so it will faced with increased cost of operations ( Agency Theory ) . Furthermore there is a idea based on economic principal of reason , which implies that each person operates for their ego involvement, unless they are forced to make so. Each party ( stockholders and debitors ) will anticipate that the others will run for the ain ego involvement, so this deficiency of trust will necessitate directors to acquire into contract with stockholders and debitors to protect their involvements and increase their assurance. There were many illustrations of catching directors and stockholders referred to as monitoring and bonding understandings to cut down bureau costs even before the nineteenth century when the fiscal statements were required by jurisprudence to be published. One of the most of import illustrations is the compact that restricts the payment of dividends. In the 1620 a corporate charter ( New River Company ) included a restriction that dividends would merely be paid from the net incomes. Some company charters after that day of the month did non include dividend compact ( Kehal, 1941 ) . This infers that even before the legislative demands houses were concerned about their stakeholders. In add-on directors should besides be given wagess in order to work for increasing the value of the administration. An illustration would be sharing the net income. In 1887 the Leeds Estate Building and Investment Company s articles had a proviso whereby the directors and managers were entitled to a fillip based on the sum of net income available for dividends. ( Edwards, 1968 ) The stockholders and the debt holders will necessitate to be provided with the indispensable information about the administration which so will increase their assurance. For this intent directors are required to be audited by an external hearer, sing their fiscal histories. From 1844 to 1900 the UK company Torahs did non necessitate the companies to print audited fiscal statements, yet they presented these to their stockholders at the one-year general meetings. In 1890 British hearers came to the US to scrutinize US houses, raising capital in London, because their house s reputes were of import to the success of those issues ( Watts and Zimmerman, 1983, DeMond, 1951 ) . Even there were demands by the stock exchanges of the US for the presentation of audited fiscal statements, non because of authorities ordinance, but because of self involvement ( Benston, 1969 ) . When there are a little figure of parties the statement of acquiring into contracts to diminish the cost seems to be valid but when there are a big figure of stakeholders present, the cost of contracts itself will be really high and here this statement does non work. Another statement is that extremely ranked best executing administrations will take over the administrations that are executing low. The geting house may replace all the bing staff. This menace will coerce the directors to work to increase the value of the administration. Another statement in the favor of free market position is reflected in the Market for Lemons position given by Akerlof, G.A. in August 1970. An administration is referred to be a lemon if it is foremost assumed of a good quality, but after erstwhile it turns into a deficient one ( Craig Deegan ) . Akerlof claims that even without enforcing accounting ordinance the house will be unwraping true information about its operations whether good or bad. If the administration is non unfastened about its public presentation, the market will comprehend this as negative and presume that the house has something bad to hide. Stated above are some claims given by the protagonists of the free market position of accounting ordinance. All these statements focus on the point that the houses can expeditiously bring forth information about their operations even in the absence of ordinance. Now we will see some statements in the favor of ordinance. THE PRO-REGULATION Approach: The advocators of free market theory of accounting ordinance based their statements on the two basic positions. First of these position says that if anybody truly needs to acquire information about the administration he will be willing to pay for it ( For illustration if an administration is working truly good, the hazard of loss on the investing will be decreased and therefore if there is low hazard the return demanded will besides acquire to a lower degree ) . The demand and supply forces will guarantee the production of best possible sum of information. The 2nd position provinces that if the administration fails to bring forth sensible information, so there will be great uncertainty about the operational efficiency of the administration. This state of affairs will ensue in an increased operational cost. The protagonists of pro-regulation attack claim that this statement is non valid for the goods that are free or public goods. Accounting information is known as public goods ( Deegan, C. 2000 ) , this is a good that can be available to the populace for usage without even paying for it. The people who use this information without even paying for it are referred to as free riders. Free riders predominating in the market will minimize the true demand for the good and this will do an underproduction of it. Harmonizing to Cooper and Keim ( 1983 ) and Demski and Feltham ( 1976 ) , when the users of a public good who are paying for it can non be excluded from those who are non paying, the monetary value system does non work expeditiously and it consequences into market failure. Therefore ordinance is necessary to be imposed. There comes another statement to this instance where the presence of accounting ordinance can ensue in an over production of the good. Furthermore, as investing analysts are one of the major users of the information. They may buttonhole for any new ordinance for the revelation of a certain sort of information to have more benefit. This lobbying may take to accounting standard overload, and this will be hard for the standard compositors to equilibrate between the both state of affairss stated above. The regulators frequently province that ordinance is necessary to guarantee that every one has entree to the same information by forbiding insider trading. And this is in the best involvement of the populace. Crisiss have a long history in warranting legislative actions which affect corporations. For illustration: the South Sea Bubble, which was blamed on speculators, led to an act of UK parliament in 1720 s which prohibited the formation of joint stock companies ; the failure of the City of Glasgow Bank under conditions of fraud , led to UK Companies Act 1879. ( Watts, R.L.1977 ) . Public INTEREST Theory: Harmonizing to public involvement theory, ordinance is imposed to protect the rights of the populace from unjust operations of the market. The basic construct here is that the ordinance is imposed for involvement of the populace instead than for the involvement of any act uponing party. If this theory is applied in a capitalist economic system, the public needs to be assured that their resources are used in profitable mode. Harmonizing to this theory, ordinance creates such trust and assurance. Many celebrated accounting professionals criticise this attack, but Posner ( 1974 ) rejects their claims by stating that the markets are really unstable and can non run decently without ordinance and that the ordinance procedure by authorities is truly really costless. However the protagonists of the free- market attack province that ordinances will be imposed merely for the well being of the regulator. Even if it seems that the statute law is functioning the involvement of general public, with the purpose of winning trust of populace, which will assist him step up to be re-elected. Capture Theory: Capture theory provinces that if accounting ordinance is imposed, it might be ab initio put in topographic point to function the involvement of general public, but with the transition of clip the regulated party will seek to capture the regulative party. It is hard for the regulator to stay indifferent and out of influence of the regulated parties. It has been a large issue all over the universe that the big accounting houses have got control of standard puting procedure. Walker ( 1987 ) explains this construct with the aid of an illustration of ASRB, which was deemed as extremely controlled by the accounting organisations. When ASRB was traveling to be established, authoritiess received suggestions the accounting criterion should be developed by other than the accounting professionals and the ASRB should be allowed to hold a research manager. But before the constitution of the board many accounting houses united together to act upon this determination that ASRB will hold an independent research manager. In 1986 about all the members of the board had a strong and professional accounting background, and in merely two old ages the ASRB were taken in control by the accounting houses. Economic Interest GROUP THEORY: Economic involvement group theory is besides known as private involvement group theory. This theory is related to the attempts of private groups for procuring their involvements. It assumes that in a concern market different entities have similar involvement. These will fall in together into groups to coerce the authorities to enforce certain statute law in order for them to have economic benefits. In an economic competitory market there are struggles between different groups therefore the benefit of one group can perchance be the disbursal of the other. For illustration Donald Stokes, Richard Morris, and Craig Deegan ( 1990 ) have investigated the involvements of audit houses to buttonhole on proposed revelation demands. Their survey generated consequences that the higher expected costs of non-conformity with legislative revelation demands is the major ground behind their lobbying in favor of increased professional revelation demands. ( Morris, Deegan, Stokes, 1990 ) Craig Deegan ( 2000 ) explained how the different houses form groups to accept or reject some ordinances, imposed by authorities which, they think, are non in their involvement. Harmonizing to one of these illustrations, in Australia, authorities passed a ordinance to be imposed in 1990, which was related to the general insurance companies. That demand stated that the investings will be valued at their cyberspace market value. If there are any alterations, these will be charged to gain and loss history. But this created a important instability in the net incomes of many houses. Therefore the insurance houses form groups to oppose this ordinance. ( Craig Deegan ) . The protagonists of this position consider that even the regulators have their ain involvements sing a peculiar ordinance. For illustration if the regulators put in topographic point a ordinance to procure or protect the rights of the general populace, the purpose behind this action could be to win the trust of the general populace and acquire re-elected. Therefore, they can besides be seen as an involvement group under this theory. If we conclude this treatment we can state that ordinances are being imposed to profit some specific parties that have the power to buttonhole against the determination of regulators. Another noticeable point is that the little houses which have no power to consequence the determinations of regulators can non be able to protect their different involvements. REGULATION AS AN OUTUP OF A POLITICAL Procedure: This position is an of import position sing ordinance in fiscal accounting, because it challenges the basic constructs of accounting. However, if we follow the conceptual model of accounting, it emphasizes that the fiscal statements of the house should be true and just position of a company s operations, and these should non be biased ( should non be good for merely a certain group of people ) . The conceptual model besides states that the standard compositors should maintain in head all the positive or negative effects of the accounting criterions on the economic system every bit good as society. It is clear perceptible from the history that in US standard scene procedure is controlled by political forces. Congress concerns with criterions have played a critical function in the permutation of ABP with FASB. Latest examples of its intercession include: SFAS 133 ( accounting for derived functions and hedges, FASB, 1998 ) ; SFAS 141 ( riddance of pooling, 2001a ) and SFAS142 ( damage of good will, FASB, 2001b ) . ( Watts, 2003 ; Ramanna, 2005 ) It is besides stated that before the execution of certain new steps, the standard scene organic structure should name for treatment and different parties that can be affected by it and take into consideration, the suggestions given by that party. If the organic structure does non adhere to the above statement, its whole being can be challenged. However if above statement is accepted so the neutrality and objectiveness of accounting criterions will be questionable. Embracing the consideration of economic effects standard compositors will hold to give the equity and truthfulness of accounting information. As there can be certain information about a house, if disclosed, that can hold a negative impact on the value of the house. Therefore, that peculiar criterion will necessitate to be amended. For illustration, there is a demand in the Australian conceptual model that standard compositors will hold to see the economic effects of their determinations, specifically in relation to the possibility that equity and truthfulness might hold to be sacrificed. ( Collett, P 1995 ) A inquiry that comes into head is that public or users of fiscal studies by and large know that there is political force per unit area involved in the development of the fiscal studies. While holding this type of outlook, will they be able to accept that the information provided in the studies is accurate and just? Decision: We have considered all the major attacks to standard scene in fiscal accounting. Each of these attacks carry solid statements, nevertheless under certain fortunes they become challengeable. After analyzing all the facts provided by different attacks we are now in a better place to understand how hard it can be for the standard compositor to equilibrate between all these positions and put such generalized accounting criterions that can be internationally acceptable.

The Beginning of the American Civil War

The Beginning of the American Civil War On February 4, 1861, delegates from the seven seceded states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) met in Montgomery, AL and formed the Confederate States of America. Working through the month, they produced the Confederate States Constitution which was adopted on March 11. This document mirrored the US Constitution in many ways, but provided for the explicit protection of slavery as well as espoused a stronger philosophy of states rights. To lead the new government, the convention selected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president and Alexander Stephens of Georgia as vice president. Davis, a Mexican-American War veteran, had previously served as a US Senator and Secretary of War under President Franklin Pierce. Moving quickly, Davis called for 100,000 volunteers to defend the Confederacy and directed that federal property in the seceded states immediately be seized. Lincoln and the South At his inauguration on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln stated that the US Constitution was a binding contract and that the Southern states secession had no legal basis. Continuing, he said that he had no intention of ending slavery where it already existed and did not plan on invading the South.  Additionally, he commented that he would take no action that would give the South justification for armed rebellion, but would be willing to use force to retain possession of federal installations in the seceded states. As of April 1861, the US only retained control of a few forts in the South: Fort Pickens at Pensacola, FL and Fort Sumter in Charleston, SC as well as Fort Jefferson in the Dry Tortugas and Fort Zachary Taylor at Key West, FL. Attempts to Relieve Fort Sumter Shortly after South Carolina seceded, the commander of the Charleston harbor defenses, Major Robert Anderson of the 1st US Artillery Regiment, moved his men from Fort Moultrie to the nearly-complete Fort Sumter, located on a sandbar in the middle of the harbor. A favorite of general in chief General Winfield Scott, Anderson was considered an able officer and capable of negotiating the increasing tensions in Charleston. Under increasingly siege-like conditions through early 1861, that included South Carolina picket boats observing the Union troops, Andersons men worked to complete construction on the fort and emplace guns in its batteries. After refusing requests from the South Carolina government to vacate the fort, Anderson and the eighty-five men of his garrison settled in to await relief and resupply. In January 1861, President Buchanan attempted to resupply the fort, however, the supply ship, Star of the West, was driven away by guns manned by cadets from the Citadel. First Shot Fired During Attack on Fort Sumter During March 1861, a debate raged in the Confederate government regarding how forceful they should be in trying to take possession of Forts Sumter and Pickens. Davis, like Lincoln, did not wish to anger the border states by appearing as the aggressor. With supplies low, Lincoln informed the governor of South Carolina, Francis W. Pickens, that he intended to have the fort re-provisioned, but promised that no additional men or munitions would be sent. He did stipulate that should the relief expedition be attacked, efforts would be made to fully reinforce the garrison. This news was passed to Davis in Montgomery, where the decision was made to compel the forts surrender before Lincolns ships arrived. This duty fell to Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard who had been given command of the siege by Davis. Ironically, Beauregard had previously been a protà ©gà © of Anderson. On April 11, Beauregard sent an aide to demand the forts surrender. Anderson refused and further discussions after midnight failed to resolve the situation. At 4:30 am on April 12, a single mortar round burst over Fort Sumter signaling the other harbor forts to open fire. Anderson did not reply until 7:00 AM when Captain Abner Doubleday fired the first shot for the Union. Short on food and ammunition, Anderson sought to protect his men and limit their exposure to danger. As a result, he only permitted them to use the forts lower, casemated guns which were not positioned to effectively damage the other forts in the harbor. Bombarded through the day and night, Fort Sumters officers quarters caught fire and its main flag pole was toppled. After a 34-hour bombardment, and with his ammunition almost exhausted, Anderson elected t o surrender the fort. Lincolns Call for Volunteers Further Secession In response to the attack on Fort Sumter, Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 90-day volunteers to put the rebellion down and ordered the US Navy to blockade Southern ports. While the Northern states readily sent troops, those states in the upper South hesitated. Unwilling to fight fellow Southerners, the states of Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina opted to secede and joined the Confederacy. In response, the capital was moved from Montgomery to Richmond, VA. On April 19, 1861, the first Union troops arrived in Baltimore, MD on their way to Washington. While marching from one train station to another they were attacked by a pro-Southern mob. In the riot that ensued twelve civilians and four soldiers were killed. To pacify the city, protect Washington, and ensure that Maryland remained in the Union, Lincoln declared martial law in the state and sent troops. The Anaconda Plan Created by Mexican-American War hero and commanding general of the US Army Winfield Scott, the Anaconda Plan was designed to end the conflict as quickly and bloodlessly as possible. Scott called for the blockade of Southern ports and capture of the vital Mississippi River to split the Confederacy in two, as well as advised against a direct attack on Richmond. This approach was mocked by the press and public which believed that a rapid march against the Confederate capital would lead Southern resistance to collapse. Despite this ridicule, as the war unfolded over the next four years, many elements of the plan were implemented and ultimately led the Union to victory. The First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) As troops gathered in Washington, Lincoln appointed Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell to organize them into the Army of Northeastern Virginia. Though concerned about his mens inexperience, McDowell was forced to advance south in July due to growing political pressure and the impending expiration of the volunteers enlistments. Moving with 28,500 men, McDowell planned to attack a 21,900-man Confederate army under Beauregard near Manassas Junction. This was to be supported by Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson who was to march against an 8,900-man Confederate force commanded by Gen. Joseph Johnston in the western part of the state. As McDowell approached Beauregards position, he looked for a way to outflank his opponent. This led to a skirmish at Blackburns Ford on July 18. To the west, Patterson had failed to pin down Johnstons men, allowing them to board trains and move east to reinforce Beauregard. On July 21, McDowell moved forward and attacked Beauregard. His troops succeeded in breaking the Confederate line and forcing them to fall back on their reserves. Rallying around Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jacksons Virginia Brigade, the Confederates stopped the retreat and, with the addition of fresh troops, turned the tide of the battle, routing McDowells army and forcing them to flee back to Washington. Casualties for the battle were 2,896 (460 killed, 1,124 wounded, 1,312 captured) for the Union and 982 (387 killed, 1,582 wounded, 13 missing) for the Confederates.

Growth of equal opportunities in the public sector organisations Essay

Growth of equal opportunities in the public sector organisations - Essay Example The United Kingdom has progressed in provision of equal opportunities in the workplace.This has been seen by establishment of commissions, enforcement of policies and implementation of equal opportunities for members of the public sector. All these ideas and developments will be examined in the subsequent section of the essay.There are three main Acts that affect the way employees receive fair treatment in the workplace. The first piece of legislation is the Sex Discrimination act. This act seeks to protect the rights of women in the workplace especially public organisations. Women should not be denied the right to access an employment opportunity or an opportunity to develop in their work place based on their gender. This means that those stereotypes who believed that women cannot perform certain tasks have been put to task.The other two pieces of legislation that have been put in place are the Disability discrimination and Race Relations. These two acts provide that during employme nt issues of disability and race should be put aside when making decisions concerning employment. Therefore employers practicing this will be guilty of an offence.This commission was established for streamlining of employment opportunities in the Civil Service. Its purpose is to ensure that there are no cases of discrimination based on gender. It holds the firm believe that both women and men should be given the same treatment. It also believes that any employer should practice fairness when they are employing or recruiting members. Policies in District Councils There are a number of District Councils that have enforced policies that affect equal opportunities in the work place. (Cornwall County Council, 2007)One such group is the Mid Bedfordshire district council. The main idea behind the policy is to ensure that all people in the council have access to equal opportunities during service delivery and employment. It does not tolerate any unfair discrimination based several issues including gender, race, marital status, disability and sexual disability. This applies to all the people who interact with the organisation. In employment, the council ensures that it will respect the differences that are present in society and should be able to reflect these differences in its staff members. This implies that recruitment should not have any elements of discrimination. These means that managers or members in position of power should not use their positions for It also believes that there should be training and development in the sector to ensure that all workers are aware of their rights and no one should infringe them on the basis that they have the power to do so. It has therefore empowered its employees in this regard and given them the tools to fight for themselves. Lastly, this council believes in the efficient communication and monitoring of policies to ensure that the equal opportunities policy is adhered to on the ground. After monitoring the situation on the ground, the council conveys the information to members of its team. Similarly, the Leicestershire County council holds similar views. It believes that members of the public and members of staff who come in contact with the council should be made to feel valued and should not experience any discrimination. (Leicestershire County council, 2007) Policies in the police force The Warwickshire Police has made a Scheme that relates to gender. It is called the Gender Equality Scheme. This scheme was started this year and will continue into the next three years. It aims at protecting all members of the workplace against gender discrimination. The Scheme was a combination of ideas got from members of the Police Force staff, members of the pu